¹ THONGCHAI, Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu: The University of Hawaii Press, 1994) at 3Google Scholar.

² DODDS, Klaus, Geopolitics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019) at 101CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ Thongchai, supra note 1 at 17.

⁴ Ibid. See also chapters 5 and 6 in Dodds, supra note 2.

⁵ Request for Interpretation of the Judgement of 15 June 1962 in the Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Judgment of 11 November 2013, [2013] I.C.J. Rep. 281; Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Judgment of 15 June 1962, [1962] I.C.J. Rep. 6 [Preah Vihear case].

⁶ KOSKENNIEMI, Martti, From Apology to Utopia: The Structure of International Legal Argument (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) at 258–72Google Scholar; CRAVEN, Matthew and PARFITT, Rose, “Statehood, Self-Determination, and Recognition” in EVANS, Malcolm, ed., International Law, 5th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 177 at 198Google Scholar (arguing that territory “serve[s] to delimit both identity and existence of a political order by means of its separation from others”).

⁷ COULMAS, Florian, Identity: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019) at 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ I distinguish here between international legal personality and international legal subjectivity. Jan Klabbers, for instance, opines that personality is conferred by the legal system, while subjectivity is an academic concept. See KLABBERS, Jan, An Introduction to International Organizations Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015) at 42CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In this paper, objectification is defined as the transformation of human beings into subjects. Legal subjects thus refer to human beings objectified by international juridical forms. In this sense, subjectivity retains a legal dimension since it is a construct of legal discourse. When one is objectified as a terrorist, for example, one could suffer both legal and extra-legal punishment. Subjectivity is therefore not a purely academic concept.

⁹ Coulmas, supra note 7.

¹⁰ AREND, Anthony Clark, Legal Rules and International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; BRUNNÉE, Jutta and TOOPE, Stephen, “Constructivism and International Law” in DUNOFF, Jeffrey and POLLACK, Mark A., eds., Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 119Google Scholar.

¹¹ FASSBENDER, Bardo and PETERS, Anne, eds., The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

¹² LOCKARD, Craig, Southeast Asia in World History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009)Google Scholar; REID, Anthony, Imperial Alchemy: Nationalism and Political Identity in Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010)Google Scholar.

¹³ CHESTERMAN, Simon, “Does ASEAN Exist? The Association of Southeast Asian Nations as an International Legal Person” in TIWARI, Sivakant, ed., ASEAN: Life after the Charter (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2010), 18Google Scholar; CREMONA, Marise, KLEIMAN, David, LARIK, Joris, LEE, Rena, and VENNESSON, Pascal, ASEAN's External Agreements: Law, Practice and the Quest for Collective Actions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Legal scholarship on ASEAN is developing and expanding. The Integration Through Law series of Cambridge University Press is proof of this. Nonetheless, there is a need for a more radical interpretation or critique of international law in Southeast Asia.

¹⁴ CULLER, Jonathan, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) at 110CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ BELSEY, Catherine, Poststructuralism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) at 52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ Culler, supra note 14 at 110.

¹⁷ Belsey, supra note 15 at 52.

¹⁸ See Michel FOUCAULT, “The Subject and Power” in Michel FOUCAULT, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984 (London: Penguin, 1994), 326 at 326, 342 (suggesting that subjects mean individual and collective subjects since power is exercised over the actions of free individual and collective subjects. “Free” in the sense of not being a slave). For a French version, see Michel FOUCAULT, “Le sujet et le pouvoir” L'idée Libertaire (1982), online: L'idée Libertaire <http://1libertaire.free.fr/MFoucault102.html>.

¹⁹ Belsey, supra note 15 at 53.

²⁰ Michel FOUCAULT, “Truth and Juridical Forms” in Michel FOUCAULT, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984 (London: Penguin, 1994), 1 at 4.

²¹ Ibid., at 53.

²² Foucault, supra note 18 at 326. This is one of the three modes of objectification.

²³ Ibid.

²⁴ Ibid. It is apparent in the French texts that Foucault uses both “objectivation” and “subjectivation” interchangeably.

²⁵ FOUCAULT, Michel, “Truth and Power” in FOUCAULT, Michel, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984 (London: Penguin, 1994), 111 at 122Google Scholar; See also FOUCAULT, Michel, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction (New York: Vintage, 1990) at 86–9Google Scholar; FOUCAULT, Michel, Society must be Defended: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975–1976 (New York: Picador, 2003) at 26–8Google Scholar.

²⁶ FOUCAULT, Michel, “Governmentality” in FOUCAULT, Michel, Power: Essential Works of Foucault 1954–1984 (London: Penguin, 1994), 201 at 219–20Google Scholar.

²⁷ GUTTING, Gary, Foucault: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019) at 111CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁸ Foucault, supra note 26 at 219.

²⁹ AALBERTS, Tanja and GOLDER, Ben, “On the Uses of Foucault for International Law” (2012) 25 Leiden Journal of International Law 603 at 605CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁰ Ibid., at 606. For Foucault, genealogy means “to arrive at an analysis that can account of the constitution of the subject within a historical framework”: see Foucault, supra note 25 at 118.

³¹ Aalberts and Golder, supra note 29 at 605; LEGG, Stephen, “‘The Life of Individuals as well as of Nations’: International Law and the League of Nations’ Anti-Trafficking Governmentalities” (2012) 25 Leiden Journal of International Law 647CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³² FOUCAULT, Michel, The Archaeology of Knowledge (New York: Vintage, 1972) at 38Google Scholar. For Foucault, one can describe a number of statements characterized by regularity as a discursive formation. In his lecture, Foucault seems to suggest that form includes discourses and practices that produce the subject. See “Truth and Juridical Forms” in Foucault, supra note 20 at 1–3.

³³ PROZOROV, Sergei, Agamben and Politics: A Critical Introduction (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2014) at 95CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ Legg, supra note 31.

³⁵ HOOGHE, Liesbet, LENZ, Tobias, and MARKS, Gary, A Theory of International Organization: A Postfunctionalist Theory of Governance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019) at 133CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁶ Legg, supra note 31 at 651.

³⁷ Aalberts and Golder, supra note 29 at 605; a spectral sovereignty may co-exist with governmentality, see Judith BUTLER, “Indefinite Detention” in Judith BUTLER, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (London: Verso, 2004), 50 at 61.

³⁸ Legg, supra note 31 at 651.

³⁹ François EWALD, “Norms, Discipline, and the Law” (1990) 30 Representations 138, as cited in Legg, supra note 31 at 650.

⁴⁰ Matt CRAVEN, “On Foucault and Wolff or from Law to Political Economy” (2012) 25 Leiden Journal of International Law 627 at 632.

⁴¹ Martha NUSSBAUM, “Objectification” (1995) 24 Philosophy and Public Affairs 249 at 257.

⁴² Ibid., at 257. Nussbaum argues that there can be forms of objectification that are not objectionable. In the same manner, objectification may give the subject certain rights. It goes without saying that rights can empower subjects.

⁴³ In his lecture, Foucault writes that “I have sought to study … the way a human being turns him or herself into a subject”: See Foucault, supra note 18 at 327. This mode of self-subjectification can be found in his works: Foucault, The History of Sexuality, supra note 25; and FOUCAULT, Michel, The Hermeneutics of the Subject (New York: Picador, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Since Foucault does not distinguish between objectivation and subjectivation, he considers this as one of the modes of objectification, too.

⁴⁴ Foucault, supra note 20 at 4.

⁴⁵ BIANCHI, Andrea, International Law Theories: An Inquiry into Different Ways of Thinking (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017) at 206Google Scholar; SAID, Edward, Orientalism (New York: Penguin Random House, 1978)Google Scholar.

⁴⁶ Cited in Lockard, supra note 12 at 116.

⁴⁷ Foucault, supra note 20 at 54, 56; Foucault, The History of Sexuality, supra note 25 at 43.

⁴⁸ Other words include “subject races”, “dependencies”, and “authority”. Edward SAID, Culture and Imperialism (New York: Vintage, 1993) at 9; Benedict ANDERSON, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991) at 122. The word “native” meant a “common inferiority” without regard to the class or ethnolinguistic group.

⁴⁹ RUSH, James, Southeast Asia: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018) at xviiiCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁰ BUTCHER, John and ELSON, R.E., Sovereignty and the Sea: How Indonesia Became an Archipelagic State (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2017) at 20Google Scholar; Anderson, supra note 48 at 122 (arguing that the word suggests inferiority and positions the “natives” to “belong[ed] there” in opposition to the Dutch view of “not belonging there”).

⁵¹ FANON, Frantz, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 2004) at 3Google Scholar.

⁵² Rush, supra note 49 at 52; Julio D. BRAVO, Codigo Penal Vigente En Las Islas Filipinas (Madrid: Establecimiento Tipografico de Pedro Nuñez, 1887) at 14.

⁵³ The Dutch Fisheries Law allowed the “natives” to fish in these maritime districts and prohibited some other races from doing the same. Butcher and Elson, supra note 50 at 20.

⁵⁴ Bravo, supra note 52 at 14.

⁵⁵ Foucault, supra note 20 at 56.

⁵⁶ The Dutch state allowed the Dutch East India Co's charter to lapse in 1800 and the British Crown abolished the monopoly of the British East India Co., See PHILLIPS, Andrew and SHARMAN, J.C., Outsourcing Empire: How Company-States Made the Modern World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁷ Rush, supra note 49 at 58–9; Butcher and Elson, supra note 50 at 4–5.

⁵⁸ Appendix in Harry J. MARKS, The First Contest for Singapore, 1819–1824 (Dordrecht: Springer, 2014) at 253.

⁵⁹ Ibid., at 254. This provision negates the usual “discriminatory clauses” in the treaties of European powers with “Native States”. See also C.H. ALEXANDROWICZ, “The Discriminatory Clause in South Asian Treaties in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries” in C.H. ALEXANDROWICZ, The Law of Nations in Global History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 140 at 143.

⁶⁰ Marks, supra note 58 at 255.

⁶¹ The word “ceded” presumes that they have ownership of such territories.

⁶² Art. XV of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty; Marks, supra note 58 at 256.

⁶³ Marks, supra note 58 at 258.

⁶⁴ Ibid., at 258.

⁶⁵ Ibid., at 261.

⁶⁶ Ibid., at 261.

⁶⁷ Ibid., at 262.

⁶⁸ See Rush, supra note 49 at 29; Timothy BROOK, Michael van Walt van PRAAG, and Miek BOLTJES, eds., Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2018) at 15, 19–20, 64.

⁶⁹ Matthew CRAVEN, “What Happened to Unequal Treaties? The Continuities of Informal Empire” (2005) 74 Nordic Journal of International Law 335 at 346–7. Craven argues that cultural difference was treated as “backwardness”, leading to the idea of tutelage, of civilizing the “native powers”.

⁷⁰ Marks, supra note 58 at 261.

⁷¹ Quoted in Craven and Parfitt, supra note 6 at 191.

⁷² Ibid., at 191.

⁷³ Ibid., at 186.

⁷⁴ Antony ANGHIE, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) at 59. On the exclusivity of the “family of nations” as part of the ideology of colonialism, see Harald KLEINSCHMIDT, “The Family of Nations as an Element of the Ideology of Colonialism” (2016) 18 Journal of the History of International Law 278 at 290.

⁷⁵ Anghie, supra note 74 at 100.

⁷⁶ In French colonies, the city space was divided into a native sector and European sector, the colonized and the colonist. See Fanon, supra note 51 at 3–4.

⁷⁷ Anghie, supra note 74 at 76, 82.

⁷⁸ Rush, supra note 49 at 59–65. Only Siam skilfully survived the onslaught.

⁷⁹ Spanish colonization had largely left untouched the Sultanate of Sulu. In 1837, they ratified a “Capitulaciones de paz, protección y comercio” where the parties agreed mutual military assistance and commerce: “Capitulaciones de paz, protección y comercio” Gazette of Madrid (1837), online: Gaceta de Madrid <https://www.boe.es/datos/pdfs/BOE//1837/1075/A00001-00001.pdf>. In the end, Spain subjugated Sulu in 1878 and required the Sultan and Datus to sign a “Sumicion a Espana” where they declared the “indisputable Sovereignty of Spain over the Jolo archipelago and its dependencies” (Art. I): “Sumicion a Espana” Government of Spain (1878), online: Gobierno de España <http://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/show/1338973 >.

⁸⁰ This expresses the germ of the civilizing mission that would finally be codified in art. 6 of the Berlin Convention. See Anghie, supra note 74 at 97.

⁸¹ One Rajah was quoted to this effect: “Who is there possessed of authority to hand me and my countrymen, like so many cattle, over to the Dutch … If the English are tired of us; let them go away. But I deny their right to hand us over to the Dutch.” Nonetheless, this condition does not mean “natives” were slaves. See chapter V of G.F. DAVIDSON, Trade and Travel in the Far East (London: Madden and Malcolm, 1846), online: Project Gutenberg <http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/27014/pg27014.txt>.

⁸² Read in conjunction with colonial domestic laws and practices discussed above, the “native” subject is both collective and individualized subjects, a product of totalizing and individualizing power.

⁸³ Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain, 10 December 1898, online: Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library <https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp> [Treaty of Paris].

⁸⁴ Ibid.

⁸⁵ Anghie, supra note 74 at 91. Felipe Agoncillo, the representative of the Philippine Revolutionary Government in Paris, wrote an official protest dated 12 December 1898 stating that the Paris Peace Commission's resolutions: “[C]annot be accepted as obligatory by my Government, since the Commission has neither heard, nor in any wise admitted to its deliberations, the Filipino nation, who held an unquestionable right to intervene in them, in relation to what might affect their future.” See appendix B in Esteban A. de OCAMPO and Alfredo B. SAULO, First Filipino Diplomat: Felipe Agoncillo, 1859–1941 (Manila: National Historical Institute, 1977) at 275.

⁸⁶ The remaining Spanish troops inside the walled city of Manila surrendered to American troops after a token battle. The charade saved the Spanish from a more humiliating surrender to Filipino troops. See Brian McAllister LINN, Guardians of Empire: The US Army and the Pacific, 1902–1940 (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997) at 10; See Malolos Constitution of the Philippines, 22 January 1899, online: Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines <https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/>.

⁸⁷ Andrew PRESTON, American Foreign Relations: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019) at 48–9; Linn, supra note 86 at 11 (noting that early campaigns had taught them that US authority could only be “imposed by conquest” and occupation of the archipelago).

⁸⁸ The 1987 Philippine Constitution deleted the Treaty of Paris. But this puts the Philippines in an “ambiguous if not embarrassing position”: Joaquin BERNAS, The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines: A Commentary (Manila: Rex Publishing, 2003) at 33.

⁸⁹ Alain BADIOU, “Twenty-Four Notes on the Uses of the Word ‘People’” in Alain BADIOU, Pierre BOURDIEU, Judith BUTLER, Georges DIDI-HUBERMAN, Sadri KHIARI, and Jacques RANCIÈRE, eds., What is a People? (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 21 at 23.

⁹⁰ Dane KENNEDY, Decolonization: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016) at 1.

⁹¹ Caroline S. HAU, Necessary Fictions: Philippine Literature and the Nation, 1946–1980 (Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2000) at 287.

⁹² Rush, supra note 49 at 82.

⁹³ Reid, supra note 12 at 25; Lockard, supra note 12 at 199 (stating that it was “an inspiration to many colonial peoples in Asia”). The tremors also excited Chinese radicals during the Qing Dynasty. As Ou Jijia wrote: “[h]ow can China, big as it is, fear the small, while the Philippines, small as it is, oppose the big (US)?”: cited in Rebecca E. KARL, Staging the World: Chinese Nationalism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002) at 93.

⁹⁴ Bill BOWRING, “Positivism Versus Self-Determination: The Contradictions of Soviet International Law” in Susan MARKS, ed., International Law on the Left: Re-examining Marxist Legacies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 133 at 143; see also Craven and Parfitt, supra note 6 at 210.

⁹⁵ Bowring, supra note 94 at 143.

⁹⁶ Cited in Bowring, ibid.

⁹⁷ Ibid., at 159; James SUMMERS, Peoples and International Law: How Nationalism and Self-Determination Shape a Contemporary Law of Nations (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2007) at 146, 149.

⁹⁸ Preamble of Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res. 217 (III), UN Doc. A/810 (1948).

⁹⁹ Cited in Rose Sydney PARFITT, “Newer is Truer: Time, Space and Subjectivity at the Bandung Conference” in Luis ESLAVA, Michael FAKHRI, and Vasuki NESIAH, eds., Bandung, Global History, and International Law: Critical Pasts and Pending Futures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 49 at 60.

¹⁰⁰ Summers, supra note 97 at 194.

¹⁰¹ Ibid., at 193.

¹⁰² Christian REUS-SMIT, International Relations: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020) at 91.

¹⁰³ Budislav VUKAS, “States, Peoples, and Minorities as Subjects of International Law” (1991) 231 Recueil des Cours 483 at 491–2. Vukas suggests that “the people” also have international legal personality. He clarifies that “in order to be a subject of international law it suffices that an entity is a holder of rights and duties under international law. Its procedural capacity to assert such rights is not an indispensable element of legal personality.”

¹⁰⁴ Alexander ORAKHELASHVILI, Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law, 8th ed. (London: Routledge, 2019) at 373.

¹⁰⁵ Ibid., at 373.

¹⁰⁶ Ibid.

¹⁰⁷ Ibid., at 374.

¹⁰⁸ Ibid.

¹⁰⁹ Ibid., citing Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, GA Res. 1514(XV), UN Doc. A/4684 (1960).

¹¹⁰ Foucault, supra note 18 at 327.

¹¹¹ Fanon, supra note 51 at 2.

¹¹² Vukas, supra note 103.

¹¹³ Personality and subjectivity are both achieved. See also Parfitt, supra note 99 at 61. She argues that “the Bandung states presented themselves as quintessential international subjects”. In this section, my emphasis is the subjectivity of the people, not states.

¹¹⁴ See Lockard, supra note 12 at 149; George McT. KAHIN, “Sukarno's Proclamation of Indonesian Independence” (2000) 69 Indonesia 1 at 2.

¹¹⁵ Summers, supra note 97 at 194.

¹¹⁶ Said, supra note 48 at 336.

¹¹⁷ For Badiou, “adjective+people”, however, is now an “inert category of the state”: Badiou, supra note 89 at 24. But the people as a subject, I believe, does not dissolve with the formation of a state; there are three typologies of nationalisms in Reid's work: ethnic nationalism is based on narratives of common descent (Thai, Malaysia, Vietnam, Burma); state nationalism is founded on education promoted by the state (Thai); and anti-imperial nationalism developed from the confrontation between colonizer and colonized (the Philippines and Indonesia). See also Reid, supra note 12 at 25.

¹¹⁸ On the individual level, the subject with an adjective is the citizen, a subject objectivized by constitutional and governmental regulations.

¹¹⁹ Kishore MAHBUBANI and Jeffery SNG, The ASEAN Miracle: A Catalyst for Peace (Singapore: Ridge Books, 2017) at 179.

¹²⁰ Ian TAYLOR, African Politics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018) at 110; Rush, supra note 49 at 9. Post-colonial national identity in Southeast Asia, of course, remains contested. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar face ethnic separatists who have a different idea of national identity. To protect political geo-bodies, national courts would adopt the doctrine of “internal” self-determination to delegitimize secession. See Province of North Cotabato v. The Government of the Republic of the Philippines Peace Panel on Ancestral Domain, Decision of 14 October 2008, Supreme Court of the Philippines, [2008] G.R. No. 183591, online: Supreme Court E-Library <https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/1/47263>.

¹²¹ On ideas of Asian regionalism, see Baogang HE, Contested Ideas of Regionalism in Asia (London: Routledge, 2017).

¹²² Ludger KÜHNHARDT, Region-Building: Vol. I: The Global Proliferation of Regional Integration (New York: Berghan Books, 2010) at 13.

¹²³ Carlos CLOSA and Lorenzo CASINI, Comparative Regional Integration: Governance and Legal Models (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016) at 36–8.

¹²⁴ SCHÜTZE, Robert, European Constitutional Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012) at 9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁵ MIKSIC, John N. and GOH, Geok Yian, Ancient Southeast Asia (London: Routledge, 2017)Google Scholar.

¹²⁶ WOON, Walter Cheong Ming, The ASEAN Charter: A Commentary (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2016) at 3–4Google Scholar.

¹²⁷ BA, Alice, (Re)Negotiating East and Southeast Asia: Region, Regionalism, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Singapore: National University of Singapore Press, 2009) at 84Google Scholar.

¹²⁸ Mahbubani and Sng, supra note 119 at 58. Brunei joined ASEAN earlier in the 1980s.

¹²⁹ ASEAN's relevance continues to be debated. STUBBS, Richard, “ASEAN Sceptics versus ASEAN Proponents: Evaluating Regional Institutions” (2019) 32 Pacific Review 923CrossRefGoogle Scholar (arguing that Realists are “skeptics” and Constructivists are “proponents”). But see JETSCHKE, Anja and THEINER, Patrick, “Time to Move On! Why the Discussion about ASEAN's Relevance is Outdated” (2020) 33 Pacific Review 593CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Empirical evidence suggests ASEAN's deepening integration: Intra-ASEAN trade from 2004 to 2011 increased from US$260 billion to US$598 billion, and intra-ASEAN FDI from US$0.85 billion in 2000 to US$26.27 billion in 2011 according to data cited in CHANG, Jun Yan, “Essence of Security Communities: Explaining ASEAN” (2016) 16 International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 335 at 349CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The Covid-19 pandemic may, of course, affect this. But the trend of integration is firmly established.

¹³⁰ ADLER, Emanuel and BARNETT, Michael, “A Framework for the Study of Security Communities” in ADLER, Emanuel and BARNETT, Michael, eds., Security Communities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 29 at 31–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³¹ BEDERMAN, David J., “The Souls of International Organizations: Legal Personality and the Lighthouse at Cape Spartel” (1995–1996) 36 Virginia Journal of International Law 275 at 371Google Scholar.

¹³² SIMMA, Bruno, “Universality of International Law from the Perspective of a Practitioner” (2009) 20 European Journal of International Law 265 at 268CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³³ Adler and Barnett, supra note 130 at 43.

¹³⁴ Preamble of Charter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, 20 November 2007 (entered into force 15 December 2008), online: ASEAN <https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/images/archive/publications/ASEAN-Charter.pdf>.

¹³⁵ Ibid.

¹³⁶ Kennedy, supra note 90 at 77.

¹³⁷ Ruth FIRMEZA, Gera (Manila: Mainstream, 1991) at 1–2, 184.

¹³⁸ Mahbubani and Sng, supra note 119 at 56.

¹³⁹ Ibid., at 56–7.

¹⁴⁰ Cited in Mahbubani and Sng, ibid., at 57.

¹⁴¹ Ibid., at 179.

¹⁴² Ibid.

¹⁴³ SIEMS, Mathias, Comparative Law, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018) at 280CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Camilleri also defines it as “diverse flows and process … that bind together the constituent entities of any given region”: Joseph A. CAMILLERI, Regionalism in the New Asia-Pacific Order: The Political Economy of the Asia-Pacific Region, vol. II (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2003) at 12.

¹⁴⁴ “ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint” ASEAN (2008), online: ASEAN <https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/AECBP_2025r_FINAL.pdf> at 10.

¹⁴⁵ “ASEAN Integration Report 2019” ASEAN (October 2019), online: ASEAN <https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/8.-ASEAN-integration-report-2019.pdf> at XV.

¹⁴⁶ Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, 25 March 1957 (entered into force 1 January 1958), art. 45 [TFEU]. WEATHERILL, Stephen, Cases and Materials on EU Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) at 359–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴⁷ Weatherill, supra note 146 at 81 (discussing Van Gend en Loos v. Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen, Judgment of 5 February 1963, Court of Justice of the European Communities, Case 26/62, [1963] ECR 1). Art. 20 of the TFEU constitutes a “Citizenship of the Union” for every person holding the nationality of a Member State.

¹⁴⁸ Kühnhardt, supra note 122 at 11; ACHARYA, Amitav, The Quest for Identity: International Relations of Southeast Asia (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; ACHARYA, Amitav, “Do Norms and Identity Matter? Community and Power in Southeast Asia's Regional Order” (2005) 18 Pacific Review 95 at 104CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁴⁹ For instance, there are now ASEAN registers of engineers and architects, a kind of intergovernmental regulatory commissions for mutual recognition of professions. In 2018, there were 2876 engineers and 475 architects listed. These regulatory bodies are imposing dividing and disciplinary techniques at the international level. See KIKKAWA, Aiko and SUAN, Eric, “Trends and Patterns in Intra-ASEAN Migration” in GENTILE, Elisabetta, ed., Skilled Labor Mobility and Migration: Challenges and Opportunities for the ASEAN Economic Community (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019), 1 at 12Google Scholar.

¹⁵⁰ What is meant here are enforceable rights and not simply a declaration of rights.