Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 February 2020
The rule of law bears a special meaning in the context of the international legal order, where there is no clear vertical hierarchy or sovereign. The international rule of law strives to curb the excess autonomy of individual states for the common good. Although there is considerable scepticism about whether the international rule of law actually exists, states largely do behave as if international law is truly “law”, and international obligations are also more enforceable now than ever before. But there have been and will be moments when the international rule of law is interrupted by major powers. In an interdependent world that is both capable of and prone to inflicting unimaginable destruction, the strategy for small states unable to defend themselves directly is to create the conditions that will best promote their survival, and that is accomplished by pursuing and promoting the rule of law both domestically and internationally.
Chief Justice, Supreme Court of Singapore. This paper is based on the S. Rajaratnam Lecture delivered in Singapore on 15 October 2019. I am deeply grateful to my law clerk, Du Xuan, and my colleagues, Assistant Registrars Elton Tan and Kenneth Wang, for all their assistance in the research for and preparation of this lecture.
1. History, “Peloponnesian War” (22 August 2019), online: History <http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/peloponnesian-war>.
2. Encyclopedia.com, “Athens and Melos” (2005), online: Encyclopedia.com <http://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/athens-and-melos>.
3. Robert H. Jackson Center, “Justice Jackson Delivers Opening Statement at Nuremberg, November 21, 1945” (8 January 2016), online: Robert H. Jackson Center <http://www.roberthjackson.org/article/justice-jackson-delivers-opening-statement-at-nuremberg-november-21-1945>.
4. HAYEK, Friedrich A., The Road to Serfdom (London: Routledge, 1944), at 54Google Scholar.
5. TAMANAHA, Brian, “A Concise Guide to the Rule of Law” in PALOMBELLA, Gianluigi and WALKER, Neil, eds., Relocating the Rule of Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009), at 3–16Google Scholar.
6. BEAULAC, Stephane, “The Rule of Law in International Law Today” in PALOMBELLA, Gianluigi and WALKER, Neil, eds., Relocating the Rule of Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2009), at 204Google Scholar; KUMM, Mattias, “International Law in National Courts: The International Rule of Law and the Limits of the Internationalist Model” (2003) 44 Virginia Journal of International Law 19Google Scholar.
7. Ian HURD, “Three Models of the International Rule of Law” (2015), online: <https://ssrn.com/abstract=2648267>; Beaulac, supra note 6 at 206–7. See also OWADA, Hisashi, “The Rule of Law in a Globalising World”, in NEATE, Francis, ed., The Rule of Law—Perspectives from Around the Globe (London: Lexis Nexis, 2012), at 151–62Google Scholar; CHESTERMAN, Simon, “An International Rule of Law?” (2008) 56 American Journal of Comparative Law 331 at 350CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8. BISHOP, William, “The International Rule of Law” (1961) 59 Michigan Law Review 553CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
9. SCHWARZENBERGER, Georg and BROWN, E.D., A Manual of International Law, 6th ed. (Milton: Professional Books Ltd, 1976)Google Scholar.
10. This phrase is found in Geert DE BAERE, Anna-Luise CHANÉ, and Jan WOUTERS, “Assessing the Contribution of the International Judiciary to the Rule of Law: Elements of a Roadmap”, Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies, KU Leuven, Working Paper No. 157, April 2015.
11. BALL, George, The Discipline of Power (Boston: Little Brown & Co, 1968) at 300–1Google Scholar; see generally PALMER, Geoffrey, “International Law in the Foreign Policy of a Small State” (1986) 16 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 1Google Scholar.
12. James CRAWFORD, “Chance, Order, Change: The Course of International Law”, vol. 365, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law (Leiden: Brill/Nijhoff, 2013).
13. WILLIAMS, Glanville, “International Law and the Controversy Concerning the Word ‘Law’” (1945) 22 British Yearbook of International Law 146Google Scholar; Anthony D'AMATO, “Is International Law Really ‘Law’?”, Pritzker School of Law, Northwestern University, Faculty Working Paper 103, 2010, online: <https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/facultyworkingpapers/103/>.
14. HART, H.L.A., The Concept of Law, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Law Series, 1997)Google Scholar.
15. FISHER, Roger, “Bringing Law to Bear on Governments” (1961) 74 Harvard Law Review 1130CrossRefGoogle Scholar; FISHER, Roger, International Conflict for Beginners (London: Allen Lane, 1971), at 155Google Scholar.
16. D'Amato, supra note 13 at 2.
17. Statute of the International Court of Justice, 26 June 1945, U.S.T.S. 993 (entered into force 24 October 1945), art. 38(1).
18. As of January 2018, 116 State Parties have ratified the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
19. Graham ALLISON, “Heresy to Say Great Powers Don't Bow to Tribunals on Law of the Sea?” The Straits Times (16 July 2016), online: The Straits Times <http://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/heresy-to-say-great-powers-dont-bow-to-international-courts>.
20. PAULSON, Colter, “Compliance with Final Judgements of the International Court of Justice since 1987” (2004) 98 American Journal of International Law 434 at 457CrossRefGoogle Scholar; LLAMZON, Aloysius, “Jurisdiction and Compliance in Recent Decisions of the International Court of Justice” (2007) 5 European Journal of International Law 815 at 852CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
21. HENKIN, Louis, How Nations Behave, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1979)Google Scholar; WATTS, Arthur, “The International Rule of Law” (1993) 36 German Yearbook of International Law 15 at 41Google Scholar.
22. De Baere, Chané, and Wouters, supra note 10 at 4.
23. Ibid., at 5.
24. LAUTERPACHT, Hersch, The Development of International Law by the International Court (New York: Praeger, 1958), at 3Google Scholar.
25. Legal Consequences of the Separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. G.L. No 169, I.C.G.J. 534 (ICJ 2019).
26. Ibid., at para. 83.
27. Ibid., at paras. 86–8.
28. BORDIN, Fernando, “Reckoning with British Colonialism: The Chagos Advisory Opinion” (2019) 78 Cambridge Law Journal 253 at 254CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
29. ALLEN, Stephen, “The Chagos Advisory Opinion and the Decolonization of Mauritius” (2019) 23 American Society of International Law InsightsGoogle Scholar.
30. United Nations, Meetings Coverage, “General Assembly Welcomes International Court of Justice Opinion on Chagos Archipelago, Adopts Text Calling for Mauritius’ Complete Decolonization” (22 May 2019), online: UN <http://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12146.doc.htm>.
31. CANÇADO TRINDADE, Antônio Augusto, “Prologue: An Overview of the Contribution of International Tribunals to the Rule of Law” in DE BAERE, Geert and WOUTERS, Jan, eds., The Contribution of International and Supranational Courts to the Rule of Law (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2015), at 5Google Scholar.
32. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, 1833 U.N.T.S. 3, 21 I.L.M. 1261 (entered into force 16 November 1994), part XI, s. 5, arts. 187, 190.
33. MILLER, Scott and HICKS, Gregory, Investor-State Dispute Settlement: A Reality Check (Washington: Center for Strategic & International Studies, 2015)Google Scholar.
34. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], “World Investment Report 2014: Investing in the SGDs” (2 May 2014) at 124, online: UNCTAD <https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/wir2014_en.pdf>.
35. TRAKMAN, Leon E., “Australia's Rejection of Investor-State Arbitration: A Sign of Global Change” in TRAKMAN, Leon E. and RANIERI, Nicole, eds., Regionalism in International Investment Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), at 348CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
36. UNCTAD Series on International Investment Policies for Development, “Investor-State Disputes: Prevention and Alternatives to Arbitration” (1 August 2010) at 15–20, online: UNCTAD <http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/diaeia200911_en.pdf>.
37. Trakman, supra note 35 at 358–9.
38. Judgement of 6 March 2018, Slovak Republic v. Achmea B.V., C-284/16, EU:C:2018:158.
39. Laurens ANKERSMIT, “Achmea: The Beginning of the End for ISDS in and with Europe?” (24 April 2018), online: International Institute for Sustainable Development [IISD] <https://www.iisd.org/itn/2018/04/24/achmea-the-beginning-of-the-end-for-isds-in-and-with-europe-laurens-ankersmit/>.
40. Clément FOUCHARD and Marc KRESTIN, “The Judgment of the CJEU in Slovak Republic v Achmea—A Loud Clap of Thunder on the Intra-EU BIT Sky!” Kluwer Arbitration Blog (7 March 2018), online: Kluwer Arbitration Blog <http://arbitrationblog.kluwerarbitration.com/2018/03/07/the-judgment-of-the-cjeu-in-slovak-republic-v-achmea/>.
41. Ankersmit, supra note 39; Centre for International Environmental Law, “Implications of Achmea—How the Achmea Judgment Impacts Investment Agreements with Non-EU Countries” (19 April 2018), online: CIEL <http://www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Implications-of-Achmea.pdf> [CIEL].
42. CIEL, supra note 41.
43. Ministry of Law, “Written Answer by Minister for Law, K Shanmugam to Parliamentary Question on Proposed Reforms to Investor-state Arbitration Regime” (7 November 2017), online: MinLaw <http://app.mlaw.gov.sg/news/parliamentary-speeches/written-answer-by-minister-for-law--k-shanmugam--to-parliamentar9>.
44. Gabrielle KAUFMANN-KOHLER and Michele POTESTÀ, “Can the Mauritius Convention Serve as a Model for the Reform of Investor-State Arbitration in connection with the Introduction of a Permanent Investment Tribunal or an Appeal Mechanism?” CIDS-Geneva Centre for International Dispute Settlement (3 June 2016) at para. 27, online: CIDS-Geneva Centre for International Dispute Settlement <http://www.uncitral.org/pdf/english/CIDS_Research_Paper_Mauritius.pdf>; European Commission, “Recommendation for a Council Decision Authorising the Opening of Negotiations for a Convention Establishing a Multilateral Court for the Settlement of Investment Disputes” (13 September 2017), online: European Commission <http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52017PC0493&from=EN>; IISD, “Replacing Existing Investor-State Arbitration System with a Permanent Court” in A Sustainability Toolkit for Trade Negotiators (March 2017), online: IISD <http://www.iisd.org/toolkits/sustainability-toolkit-for-trade-negotiators>.
45. Crina BALTAG and Cristen BAUER, “An Update on the ISDS Reform: the 37th Session of the UNCITRAL Working Group III Investor-State Dispute Settlement Reform”, Kluwer Arbitration Blog (2 May 2019), online: Kluwer Arbitration Blog <http://arbitrationblog.kluwerarbitration.com/2019/05/02/an-update-on-the-isds-reform-the-37th-session-of-the-uncitral-working-group-iii-investor-state-dispute-settlement-reform/>.
46. Miller and Hicks, supra note 33 at 5, 17.
47. UN Security Council, “Sanctions” (n.d.), online: UNSC <http://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/information>.
48. “UN Lifts Sanctions against Iraq” BBC (15 December 2010), online: BBC <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-12004115>.
49. Eleanor ALBERT, “What to Know About Sanctions on North Korea” Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) (16 July 2019), online: CFR <http://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/what-know-about-sanctions-north-korea>.
50. International Progress Organisation, Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, Forty-eighth session, “Agenda item 13: International peace and security as an essential condition for the enjoyment of human rights, above all the right to life” (15 August 1996), online: IPO <http://www.i-p-o.org/sanct.htm>.
51. Barbara CROSSETTE, “Iraq Sanctions Kill Children, U.N. Reports” The New York Times (1 December 1995), online: The New York Times <http://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/01/world/iraq-sanctions-kill-children-un-reports.html>.
52. Albert, supra note 49.
53. Ibid.
54. UN Human Rights Council, “Basic Facts about the UPR” (n.d.), online: UNHRC <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/UPR/Pages/BasicFacts.aspx>.
55. UPR-Info, “Statistics of Recommendations” (n.d.), online: UPR-Info <https://www.upr-info.org/database/statistics>.
56. COWELL, Frederick, “Understanding the Legal Status of Universal Periodic Review Recommendations” (2018) 7 Cambridge International Law Journal 164CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
57. United Nations, International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer, 16 September, “Background” (n.d.), online: UN <un.org/en/events/ozoneday/background.shtml>.
58. YOSHIDA, Osamu, “Soft Enforcement of Treaties: The Montreal Protocol's Noncompliance Procedure and the Functions of Internal International Institutions” (1999) 10 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy 95 at 99Google Scholar.
59. Ibid., at 102.
60. Ibid., at 139.
61. Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, 1 U.N.T.S. 16 (entered into force 24 October 1945), preamble.
62. Lawal, OLAWALE, “Pariah State System and Enforcement Mechanism of International Law” (2012) 4 Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences 226 at 227Google Scholar.
63. Alexandra V. HUNEEUS, “Compliance with International Court Judgments and Decisions” in Karen J. ALTER, Cesare ROMANO, and Yuval SHANY, eds., Oxford Handbook of International Adjudication, University of Wisconsin, Legal Studies Research Paper No. 1219, 6 January 2013, at 3.
64. See generally KOH, Harold Hongju, “Why Do Nations Obey International Law?” (1997) 106 Yale Law Journal 2599CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
65. BRIERLY, James, The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law of Peace, 4th ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949)Google Scholar.
66. S. DHANABALAN, Minister for Foreign Affairs, speech at the NUS Forum Lecture Theatre No. 11 (27 November 1981).
67. MILANOVIC, Marko, “State Responsibility for Genocide” (2006) 17 European Journal of International Law 553 at 554CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
68. Philippe KIRSCH, “Applying the Principles of Nuremberg in the ICC” International Criminal Court (30 September 2006), online: ICC <https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ED2F5177-9F9B-4D66-9386-5C5BF45D052C/146323/PK_20060930_English.pdf>.
69. KOH, Harold Hongju, “The Trump Administration and International Law” (2017) 56 Washburn Law Journal 413 at 419Google Scholar.
70. The Situation in Afghanistan and its Implications for International Peace and Security, UN General Assembly, Sixth Emergency Special Session, ES-6/2, UN Doc.A/RES/ES-6/2 (1980).
71. United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States v. Iran), Judgement, [1980] I.C.J. Rep. 3.
72. “Declaration of the Government of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria” Algiers Accords (19 January 1981), online: Pars Times <http://www.parstimes.com/history/algiers_accords.pdf>.
73. S. RAJARATNAM, Foreign Minister of Singapore, speech to the General Assembly of the United Nations on the occasion of Singapore's admission to the UN (21 September 1965).
74. Gideon RACHMAN, “Donald Trump Leads a Global Revival of Nationalism” Financial Times (25 June 2018), online: Financial Times <https://www.ft.com/content/59a37a38-7857-11e8-8e67-1e1a0846c475>.
75. Lay Hwee, YEO, “Diplomacy, International Relations and Singapore's Foreign Policy” in Lay Hwee, YEO, KEK, Peggy, KOH, Gillian, and Li Lin, CHANG, eds., Tommy Koh: Serving Singapore and the World (Singapore: WS Professional, 2017), chapter 1 at 9Google Scholar.
76. Parliamentary Debates Singapore: Official Report, vol. 94 (1 March 2019) (Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for Foreign Affairs).
77. Yeo, supra note 75 at 9.
78. Tim DIXON, “Here's How We Solve the Global Crisis of Tribalism and Democratic Decay”, World Economic Forum (9 January 2019), online: WEF <weforum.org/agenda/2019/01/can-globalization-tackle-tribalism-and-democratic-decay>.
79. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Transcript of Remarks by Minister for Foreign Affairs Dr Vivian Balakrishnan at the MFA Townhall on 17 July 2017” (17 July 2017), online: MFA <http://www.mfa.gov.sg/Newsroom/Press-Statements-Transcripts-and-Photos/2017/07/Transcript-of-Remarks-by-Minister-for-Foreign-Affairs-Dr-Vivian-Balakrishnan-at-the-MFA-Townhall-on> [MFA Townhall].
80. Prime Minister's Office Singapore, “Speech by Mr Lee Kuan Yew, Minister Mentor, at the S. Rajaratnam Lecture, 09 April 2009, 5:30 pm at Shangri-La Hotel” (9 April 2009), online: PMO <http://www.pmo.gov.sg/Newsroom/speech-mr-lee-kuan-yew-minister-mentor-s-rajaratnam-lecture-09-april-2009-530-pm-shangri> [MM Lee].
81. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “MFA Press Release: Speech by Mr Teo Chee Hean, Deputy Prime Minister, Coordinating Minister for National Security and Minister for Home Affairs at the S. Rajaratnam Lecture at Shangri-La Hotel on Friday, 30 November 2012” (30 November 2012), online: MFA <http://www.mfa.gov.sg/Newsroom/Press-Statements-Transcripts-and-Photos/2012/11/MFA-Press-Release-Speech-by-Mr-Teo-Chee-Hean-Deputy-Prime-Minister-Coordinating-Minister-for-Nationa>.
82. MINDEF Singapore, “Defence Policy & Diplomacy” (n.d.), online: MINDEF <http://www.mindef.gov.sg/web/portal/mindef/defence-matters/defence-topic/defence-topic-detail/defence-policy-and-diplomacy>.
83. Prime Minister's Office Singapore, “PM Lee Hsien Loong at the Forum of Small States (FOSS) Reception” (26 September 2019), online: PMO <http://www.pmo.gov.sg/Newsroom/PM-Lee-at-the-Forum-of-Small-States-FOSS-Reception>.
84. Linette LAI, “Parliament: Vivian Outlines Foreign Policy Challenges Singapore Faces and how it will Overcome Them” The Straits Times (1 March 2019), online: The Straits Times <http://www.straitstimes.com/politics/parliament-vivian-outlines-foreign-policy-challenges-singapore-faces-and-how-it-will>.
85. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “MFA Press Release: Speech by Senior Minister Professor S Jayakumar at the S. Rajaratnam Lecture at Shangri-La Hotel on 19 May 2010” (19 May 2010), online: MFA <https://www.mfa.gov.sg/Newsroom/Press-Statements-Transcripts-and-Photos/2010/05/Speech-by-Senior-Minister-Professor-S-Jayakumar-at-the-S-Rajaratnam-Lecture-at-ShangriLa-Hotel-on-19>.
86. MFA Townhall, supra note 79.
87. THUCYCIDES, History of the Peloponnesian War, Chapter XVII, “Sixteenth Year of the War—The Melian Conference—Fate of Melos”.
88. MM Lee at para. 2.
89. Tommy KOH, “The Great Powers and the Rule of Law” The Straits Times (22 July 2016), online: The Straits Times <https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/the-great-powers-and-the-rule-of-law>.