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61. Higgins, supra note 35 at 14.

62. Magdalena PULIDO, “Palestinian Prisoners in Israeli Jails in Light of the Third Geneva Convention: From Jails to Prisoner of War Camps” in Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, ed., Palestine Membership in the United Nations: Legal and Practical Implications (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013), 268 at 268–9, 288.

63. 1037 U.N.T.S. 151, 11 I.L.M. 1358 (entered into force 17 December 1975).

64. Entered into force for Palestine on 8 March 2012.

65. Larry JOHNSON, “Palestine's Admission to UNESCO: Consequences within the United Nations” (2011) 40 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 118.

66. 1673 U.N.T.S. 57, 28 I.L.M. 657 (entered into force 5 May 1992); entered into force for Palestine on 2 January 2015.

67. Selma ABDEL-QADER and Tanya L. ROBERTS-DAVIS, “Toxic Occupation: Leveraging the Basel Convention in Palestine” (2018) 47 Journal of Palestine Studies 28.

68. 500 U.N.T.S. 95 (entered into force 24 April 1964); enforced in Palestine 2 April 2014.

69. 596 U.N.T.S. 261 (entered into force 19 March 1967); enforced in Palestine 2 April 2014.

70. Basheer ALZOUGHBI, “The Relocation of the U.S. Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem (Palestine v. United States of America): A Commentary on the Merits of the Case, Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice and Admissibility of Palestine's Application” (2019) 4 University of Bologna Law Review 114; Jean GALBRAITH, “Palestine Brings a Case against the United States in the International Court of Justice at a Fraught Time for U.S.-Palestine Relations” (2019) 113 American Journal of International Law 143.

71. Situation in the State of Palestine, supra note 16 at 60; ICC Bureau of the Assembly of States Parties, “First Meeting” ICC (18 February 2021), online: ICC <https://asp.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/ASP20/Bureau01.agenda%20and%20decisions%20-%20ENG.pdf> at 1, n. 2: re-election of Palestine as a member State of the ICC Bureau.

72. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH and Osayd AWAWDA, “The Implementation of Human Rights Conventions at the National Level: The Case of Palestine” (2020) 9 International Review of Law 11.

73. Consideration of Reports Submitted by States Parties under Article 18 of the Convention Pursuant to the Simplified Reporting Procedure, Initial Reports of States Parties due in 2015: State of Palestine, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/PSE/1 (2017).

74. Initial and Second Periodic Reports Submitted by the State of Palestine under Article 9 of the Convention, due in 2017, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, UN Doc. CERD/C/PSE/1-2 (2018).

75. Initial Report Submitted by the State of Palestine under Article 44 of the Convention, due in 2016, Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN Doc. CRC/C/PSE/1 (2019).

76. Initial Report Submitted by the State of Palestine under Article 35 of the Convention, due in 2016, Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UN Doc. CRPD/C/PSE/1 (2019).

77. Michael O'FLAHERTY, “The Concluding Observations of United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies” (2006) 6 Human Rights Law Review 27.

78. Concluding Observations on the Initial Report of the State of Palestine, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, UN Doc. CEDAW/C/PSE/CO/1 (2018).

79. Concluding Observations on the Combined Initial and Second Periodic Reports of the State of Palestine, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, UN Doc. CERD/C/PSE/CO/1-2 (2019).

80. UN Doc. A/RES/66/138 (entered into force 14 April 2014); enforced in Palestine 10 April 2019.

81. 2131 U.N.T.S. 83 (entered into force 22 December 2000); enforced in Palestine 10 April 2019.

82. 2518 U.N.T.S. 283 (entered into force 3 May 2008); enforced in Palestine 10 April 2019.

83. Markus G. SCHMIDT, “Individual Human Rights Complaints Procedures Based on United Nations Treaties and the Need for Reform” (1992) 41 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 645.

84. Bartram BROWN, “Nationality and Internationality in International Humanitarian Law” (1998) 34 Stanford Journal of International Law 347.

85. Fateh AZZAM, “Palestinian (Non)Citizenship” (2019) 73 The Middle East Journal 573.

86. Decree Law No. 1 of 2 September 2007 Concerning General Elections, Palestine Gazette (P.G.) No. 72, 9 September 2007, at 2, art. 27; Election of Local Councils Law No. 10 of 15 August 2005, P.G. No. 57, 18 August 2005, 79, art. 7.

87. Civil Service Law No. 4 of 28 May 1998, P.G. No. 24, 1 July 1998, at 20, art. 24.

88. Judicial Authority Law No. 1 of 14 May 2002, P.G. No. 38, 5 September 2001, at 279, art. 16.

89. Law on Lease and Sale of Immovable Property by Foreigners No. 40 of 27 January 1953, Jordan Gazette No. 1134, 16 February 1953, at 558, art. 3.

90. Legal Profession Law No. 3 of 24 January 1999, P.G. No. 30, 10 October 1999, at 5, art. 3.

91. Labour Law No. 7 of 30 April 2000, P.G. No. 39, 25 November 2001, at 7, art. 14.

92. Associations Law No. 1 of 16 January of 2000, P.G. No. 32, 29 February 2000, at 71, art. 1.

93. Palestine has reached bilateral agreements with various states on different matters, including trade, agriculture, communications, education, health, gas, migration, security, etc.

94. Amin DAWWAS, Conflict of Laws in Palestine (Amman: Shorok Press, 2001).

95. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH and Francesca ALBANESE, “Article 1D” in Andreas ZIMMERMANN and Terje EINARSEN, eds., The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol: A Commentary, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022, forthcoming).

96. After becoming a party on 2 April 2014 to the Convention on the Rights of the Child of 20 November 1989 (1577 U.N.T.S. 3, 28 I.L.M. 1456 (entered into force 2 September 1990)), Palestine can nominate its citizens as members to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child in accordance with art. 43(2).

97. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, “Who Has the Right to Become a Palestinian Citizen? An International Law Analysis” (2017) 18 Yearbook of Islamic and Middle Eastern Law 112 at 115–36.

98. Ka Ho TSE, “The Relevancy of Nationality to the Right to Prisoner of War Status” (2009) 8 Chinese Journal of International Law 395 at 397.

99. Delbert D. SMITH, “The Geneva Prisoner of War Convention: An Appraisal” (1967) 42 New York University Law Review 880; Donald E. HACKER, “The Application of Prisoner-of-War Status to Guerrillas Under the First Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949” (1978) 2 Boston College International and Comparative Law Review 131.

100. “Incarceration of Unlawful Combatants Law, 5762-2002” (2002) 32 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 389.

101. Pulido, supra note 62 at 270.

102. Targeted Killings case, supra note 55 at 486.

103. State of Israel, “The 2014 Gaza Conflict (7 July–26 August): Factual and Legal Aspects” Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (May 2015), online: Israel MFA <https://mfa.gov.il/ProtectiveEdge/Documents/2014GazaConflictFullReport.pdf> at 195, para. 365.

104. Valentina AZAROVA, “Exploiting a ‘Dynamic’ Interpretation? The Israeli High Court of Justice Accepts the Legality of Israel's Quarrying Activities in the Occupied Palestinian Territory” EJIL:Talk! (7 February 2012), online: EJIL:Talk! <https://www.ejiltalk.org/exploiting-a-dynamic-interpretation-the-israeli-high-court-of-justice-accepts-the-legality-of-israels-quarrying-activities-in-the-occupied-palestinian-territory/>.

105. Interview with Mr Hasan ABEDRABOUH, Spokesperson of the Commission of Detainees and Ex-Detainees Affairs in Jerusalem. Interview was conducted by Ms Najlaa SHRITEH as part of her graduation research project at Hebron University Law School (Hebron, Palestine, 19 April 2021). There were 723 Palestinian security officers held by Israel as of 2012. Issa QARAQE, Prisoners of National Security Forces: Israeli Flagrant Violation of International Law and Signed Treaties (29 January 2012), online: Alwatanvoice. See also “Israel Arrests 2 PA Intel[ligence] Officers, 2 Others for Illegal Arms Production, Dealing” The Jerusalem Post (11 July 2016), online: The Jerusalem Post <https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/israel-arrests-2-pa-intel-officers-2-others-for-illegal-arms-production-dealing-460055>.

106. The Convention took effect in Palestine on 2 November 2014 (art. 140).

107. Yonah J. BOB, “Legal Impact of Geneva Panel on Settlements, ICC Likely Only Symbolic” The Jerusalem Post (17 December 2014), online: The Jerusalem Post <https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/politics-and-diplomacy/analysis-legal-impact-of-geneva-panel-on-settlements-icc-likely-only-symbolic-384894>.

108. Jean PICTET, Commentary: III Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (Geneva: ICRC, 1960) at 52.

109. Ibid.

110. Mu'in BARGHOUTHI and Rashad TWAM, The Palestine Liberation Organization's Legal System: The Legislation of the Security and Revolutionary Judiciary (Birzeit: Institute of Law, 2010).

111. Roland FRIEDRICH, Arnold LUETHOLD, and Firas MILHEM, eds., The Security Sector Legislation of the Palestinian National Authority (Geneva: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 2008) at 17–27.

112. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, “Citizens of the State of Palestine and the Future of Palestinian Refugees: Legal and Political Scenarios” in Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, ed., Palestine Membership in the United Nations: Legal and Practical Implications (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013), 45 at 56.

113. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, “Human Rights at the Time of Transition: How Security Forces Can be Held Accountable in a Divided Community?” (2020) 25 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 171.

114. Alaa TARTIR, “The Evolution and Reform of Palestinian Security Forces 1993–2013” (2015) 4 Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 46.

115. P.G. Extraordinary Issue (19 March 2003) at 5.

116. P.G. No. 53 (28 February 2005) at 94.

117. P.G. No. 56 (28 June 2005) at 4.

118. P.G. No. 60 (9 November 2005) at 84.

119. P.G. No. 74 (9 June 2007) at 6.

120. P.G. No. 52 (18 January 2005) at 234.

121. P.G. No. 63 (27 April 2006) at 110.

122. Roland FRIEDRICH and Arnold LUETHOLD, eds., Entry-Points to Palestinian Security Sector Reform (Geneva: DCAF, 2007).

123. Adam HOROWITZ, Lizzy RATNER, and Philip WEISS, eds., The Goldstone Report: The Legacy of the Landmark Investigation of the Gaza Conflict (New York: Nation Books, 2011) at 77.

124. Francesco CAVATORTA and Robert ELGIE, “The Impact of Semi-Presidentialism on Governance in the Palestinian Authority” (2010) 63 Parliamentary Affairs 22 at 35.

125. Daniel BYMAN, “How to Handle Hamas: The Perils of Ignoring Gaza's Leadership” (2010) 89 Foreign Affairs 45.

126. Horowitz et al., supra note 123 at 77.

127. Adnan HAJJAR, “Legislation Adopted by the Palestinian Legislative Council in Gaza 2006–2014”, in Muwatin (The Palestinian Institute for the Study of Democracy), ed., Legislation at the Time of Internal Division: Studies on the Legislation Enacted Since 2007 (Ramallah: Muwatin, 2016), at 114–91.

128. See e.g. “National Accord Agreement” (Cairo, 4 May 2011), Item III, in: The Palestinian National Liberation Movement (Fatah)—the National Relations Commission, online: fatehwatan. This clause has been affirmed in subsequent agreements, the last of which was in October 2017. See Full-text of the Fatah-Hamas Agreement to end the division (2017), Palestinian Information Centre, online: palinfo.

129. Report of the Detailed Findings of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Protests in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Human Rights Council, UN Doc. A/HRC/40/CRP.2, 18 March 2019 at 224.

130. Nils MELZER, Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law (Geneva: ICRC, 2010) at 25.

131. “Updated Commentary on the Third Geneva Convention of 1949” ICRC (2020), online: ICRC <https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/full/GCIII-commentary> at para. 977 [Updated Commentary on Convention III].

132. Arts. 10–16.

133. Qafisheh, supra note 113 at 189–90.

134. Palestine acceded to the Hague Regulations on 2 April 2014; “Treaties, State Parties and Commentaries—Palestine” ICRC, online: ICRC <https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/vwTreatiesByCountrySelected.xsp?xp_countrySelected=PS>.

135. Uniforms of security forces are regulated in various pieces of legislation, for example: Law of Service in the Palestinian Security Forces of 2005, supra note 117, art. 120; Decree Law No. 23 of 26 December 2017 Concerning Police, P.G. Extraordinary Issue No. 15 (31 December 2017) at 4, art. 43; Decree-Law No. 2 of 15 January 2018 Concerning the Judicial Structure of Security Forces, P.G. No. 140 (13 February 2018) at 7, art. 36.

136. Qafisheh, supra note 113 at 185–9.

137. Michael BOTHE, Karl J. PARTSCH, and Waldemar A. SOLF, New Rules for Victims of Armed Conflicts: Commentary on the Two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1982) at 272.

138. Baker and Matar, supra note 56 at 156–7.

139. Criminal Case No. 092134/02 (12 December 2002).

140. Awol ALLO, “Marwan Barghouti in Tel Aviv: Occupation, Terrorism, and Resistance in the Courtroom” (2017) 26 Social and Legal Studies 47.

141. George H. ALDRICH, “Guerrilla Combatants and Prisoner of War Status” (1982) 31 American University Law Review 871.

142. Maria J. STEPHAN, “Fighting for Statehood: The Role of Civilian-Based Resistance in the East Timorese, Palestinian, and Kosovo Albanian Self-Determination Movements” (2006) 30 The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 57.

143. Melzer, supra note 130 at 32.

144. Ibid., at 23.

145. Pictet, supra note 108 at 67.

146. Precise statistics on this category are lacking; Abedrabouh, supra note 105. Shadi ALSHDAIFAT and Sanford R. SILVERBURG, “Islamic Hamas and Secular Fatah: How Does the Governing Process Work?” (2015) 2 Indonesian Journal of International and Comparative Law 583.

147. International Law Commission, “Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts with Commentaries” in Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its 53rd Session (2001).

148. Leslie C. GREEN, “Terrorism and Armed Conflict: The Plea and the Verdict” (1989) 19 Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 131 at 135.

149. Dugard, supra note 52 at 3.

150. Targeted Killings case, supra note 55 at 499–500.

151. Melzer, supra note 130 at 33–4.

152. Kenneth WATKIN, “Opportunity Lost: Organized Armed Groups and the ICRC ‘Direct Participation in Hostilities’ Interpretive Guidance” (2010) 42 New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 641 at 655.

153. Anne-Marie LA ROSA and Carolin WUERZNER, “Armed Groups, Sanctions and the Implementation of International Humanitarian Law” (2008) 90 International Review of the Red Cross 327 at 329.

154. Dugard, supra note 52 at 3.

155. “General Political Program of Fatah Movement” (2009) 20 Journal of Palestine Studies 108 (in Arabic).

156. Sudarsan RAGHAVAN, “Mohammed Deif, the Shadowy Figure Who Heads Hamas's Military Wing” The Washington Post (2 August 2014), online: The Washington Post <https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/mohammed-deif-the-shadowy-figure-who-heads-hamass-military-wing/2014/08/02/ed68c46e-1a85-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html>.

157. Palestinian Supreme Constitutional Court, Decision No. 2 of 12 September 2018; P.G. No. 148 (23 October 2018) at 132.

158. Abdelhameed EILA, Commentary on Criminal Procedures Law of the Palestine Liberation Organization of 1979 (Gaza: Mansour Press, 1995).

159. Isam ABDEEN, A Legal Treatise on the Explanatory Judgment of the Supreme Constitutional Court on Military Affairs, the Legal Status of the Police, and on Competent Courts to Prosecute Police Personnel (Ramallah: Al-Haq, 2018).

160. O.J. ATAKE, “The Actualization of Independent State of Palestine: Palestine Liberation Organization's Contribution and the Emergence of HAMAS” (2018) 7 International Journal of Advanced Legal Studies and Governance 47.

161. Sigall HOROVITZ, “Accountability of Hamas under International Humanitarian Law” in Mark AMI-EL, ed., Hamas, the Gaza War and Accountability, under International Law (Jerusalem: Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 2011), 29 at 31.

162. Pictet, supra note 108 at 60.

163. Jean-Marie HENCKAERTS and Louise DOSWALD-BECK, eds., Customary International Humanitarian Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 384.

164. “Commentary of 1960 on the Third Geneva Convention of 1949” ICRC, online: ICRC <https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Comment.xsp?action=openDocument&documentId=ECA76FA4DAE5B32EC12563CD00425040> at 44.

165. Toni PFANNER, “Military Uniforms and the Law of War” (2004) 86 International Review of the Red Cross 93.

166. Pictet, supra note 108 at 60.

167. W. Thomas MALLISON and Sally V. MALLISON, “The Juridical Status of Irregular Combatants under the International Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict” (1977) 9 Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law 39 at 56.

168. Kassem case, supra note 37 at 806–11.

169. Goldstone Report, supra note 34 at 420.

170. Pfanner, supra note 165 at 103.

171. Office of General Counsel, Department of Defense, “Department of Defense Law of War Manual” US Department of Defense (June 2015, updated December 2016), online: DOD <https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/DoD%20Law%20of%20War%20Manual%20-%20June%202015%20Updated%20Dec%202016.pdf?ver=2016-12-13-172036-190> at 123–4.

172. Kassem case, supra note 37 at 778–9.

173. UK Joint Doctrine and Concepts Centre, The Joint Service Manual of the Law of Armed Conflict (Swindon: JDCC, 2004) at 42–3.

174. Kassem case, supra note 37 at 779.

175. W. Thomas MALLISON and Sally V. MALLISON, “The Juridical Status of Privileged Combatants under the Geneva Protocol of 1977 Concerning International Conflicts” (1978) 42 Law and Contemporary Problems 4 at 25.

176. “Israeli Forces Kill Four Militants in Bethlehem Raid” ABC News (13 March 2008), online: ABC News <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-03-13/israel-forces-kill-four-militants-in-bethlehem-raid/1070754>.

177. David M. HALBFINGER, “Israel Strikes Militants in Syria and Gaza After Clash Over Body at Border” The New York Times (23 February 2020), online: The New York Times <https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/23/world/middleeast/israel-gaza-bulldozer-body-palestinian.html>.

178. “Palestinians Who Were the Object of a Targeted Killing in the Gaza Strip, since Operation Cast Lead” B'Tselem: The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, online: B'Tselem <https://www.btselem.org/statistics/fatalities/after-cast-lead/by-date-of-event/gaza/palestinians-who-were-the-object-of-a-targeted-killing>.

179. Adnan ABU AMER, “Some Palestinians up in arms over weapons proliferation” Al-Monitor (3 June 2019), online: Al-Monitor <https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2019/06/west-bank-weapons-proliferation-murder-rates-hamas-abbas.html>.

180. “‘Operation Failed’: Details Emerge on Israeli Covert Op Gone Awry” Al Jazeera (4 December 2019), online: Al Jazeera <https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/4/operation-failed-details-emerge-on-israeli-covert-op-gone-awry>.

181. Al-Zoughbi, supra note 29 at 177.

182. Nathan J. BROWN, “The Hamas-Fatah Conflict: Shallow but Wide” (2010) 34 The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 35.

183. Goldstone Report, supra note 34 at 80.

184. Sandesh SIVAKUMARAN, “Lessons for the Law of Armed Conflict from Commitments of Armed Groups: Identification of Legitimate Targets and Prisoners of War” (2011) 93 International Review of the Red Cross 463 at 468.

185. Goldstone Report, supra note 34 at 79–81.

186. Targeted Killings case, supra note 55 at 522.

187. Pulido, supra note 62 at 273.

188. Marco SASSOLI, “‘La ‘Guerre contre le terrorisme’, le droit international humanitaire et le statut de prisonnnier de guerre” (2001) 39 Canadian Yearbook of International Law 211.

189. Updated Commentary on Convention III, supra note 131 at para. 1026.

190. Stephen C. NEFF, War and the Law of Nations: A General History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005) at 392.

191. Goldstone Report, supra note 34 at 285.

192. European Parliament, Resolution on the Case of Gilad Shalit (B7-0171/2010).

193. Dugard, supra note 52 at 3.

194. Yasmin NAQVI, “Doubtful Prisoner-of-War Status” (2002) 84 International Review of the Red Cross 571 at 574–5.

195. Ibid., at 579, referring to a US practice in Vietnam.

196. Sharon WEILL, “The Judicial Arm of the Occupation: The Israeli Military Courts in the Occupied Territories” (2007) 89 International Review of the Red Cross 395.

197. Pulido, supra note 62 at 288; also Azarova, supra note 104.

198. Nery RAMATI, “The Rulings of the Israeli Military Courts and International Law” (2020) 25 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 149.

199. Naqvi, supra note 194 at 581.

200. Updated Commentary on Convention III, supra note 131 at para. 1048.

201. Howard S. LEVIE, “Compliance by State with the 1949 Geneva Prisoner of War Convention” (1974) 6 Army Lawyer 1 at 4, citing the ICRC's intervention in Syrian and Israeli prisoners captured during the 1973 war.

202. Pulido, supra note 62 at 287.

203. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, “Nationalizing International Criminal Law in Palestine: The Challenge of Complementarity” (2016) 27 Hague Yearbook of International Law 165.

204. Pulido, supra note 62 at 284.

205. Art. 4(a)(6).

206. UK Joint Doctrine and Concepts Centre, supra note 173 at 45.

207. Pictet, supra note 108 at 48.

208. Emily CRAWFORD, “Tracing the Historical and Legal Development of the Levée En Masse in the Law of Armed Conflict” (2017) 19 Journal of the History of International Law 329.

209. Themis TZIMAS, “Self-Defense by Non-State Actors in States of Fragmented Authority” (2019) 24 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 175.

210. Importance of the Universal Realization of the Right of Peoples to Self-Determination and of the Speedy Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples for the Effective Guarantee and Observance of Human Rights, UN General Assembly, UN Doc. A/RES/2787 (1971), at para. 1.

211. Importance of the Universal Realization of the Right of Peoples to Self-Determination and of the Speedy Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples for the Effective Guarantee and Observance of Human Rights, UN General Assembly, UN Doc. A/RES/3070 (1973), at paras. 2, 5.

212. Nissim BAR-YAACOV, “Some Aspects of Prisoner-of-War Status According to the Geneva Protocol I of 1977” (1985) 20 Israel Law Review 243 at 247.

213. Mutaz M. QAFISHEH, “Palestinian Prisoners in Israel versus Namibian Prisoners under the Apartheid: A Potential Role for the International Criminal Court” (2016) 20 International Journal of Human Rights 798.

214. Sylvain VITE, “Typology of Armed Conflicts in International Humanitarian Law: Legal Concepts and Actual Situations” (2009) 91 International Review of the Red Cross 69 at 83–5.

215. W.G. RABUS, “A New Definition of the ‘Levée en Masse’?” (1977) 24 Netherlands International Law Review 232.

216. Art. 1 refers to armies and volunteer corps, covered by other rules.

217. Pictet, supra note 108 at 68.

218. Updated Commentary on Convention III, supra note 131 at para. 1064.

219. Morris GREENSPAN, The Modern Law of Land Warfare (Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1959).

220. Francis LIEBER, Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1863) at 16 (emphasis added).

221. Project of an International Declaration Concerning the Laws and Customs of War, Adopted by the Conference of Brussels (27 August 1874) at art. 10.

222. Tracey DOWDESWELL, “The Brussels Peace Conference of 1874 and the Modern Laws of Belligerent Qualification” (2017) 54 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 805 at 835.

223. Lieber, supra note 220, art. 52.

224. Naqvi, supra note 194 at 575, referring to the New Zealand and Australia military manuals.

225. Updated Commentary on Convention III, supra note 131, at para. 1065 (emphasis added).

226. Rashid KHALIDI, The Hundred Years’ War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017 (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2020).

227. Jamal R. NASSAR, “The Culture of Resistance: The 1967 War in the Context of the Palestinian Struggle” (1997) 19 Arab Studies Quarterly 77 at 83–5.

228. Kathleen CAVANAUGH, “The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza” (2007) 12 Journal of Conflict and Security Law 197 at 221, reporting that in 2000–05, 3,185 Palestinian civilians, including 645 minors, were killed by Israeli security forces via lethal force; 132 investigations took place at the same period, with only 7 solider convictions.

229. Naseer H. ARURI, “Resistance and Repression: Political Prisoners in Israeli Occupied Territories” (1978) 7 Journal of Palestine Studies 48.

230. Kassem case, supra note 37 at 776.

231. Addameer Prisoner Support and Human Rights Association, “General Briefing: Palestinian Political Prisoners in Israeli Prisons” Addameer Prisoner Support and Human Rights Association (2014), online: Addameer <https://www.addameer.org/advocacy/briefings_papers/general-briefing-palestinian-political-prisoners-israeli-prisons-0>.

232. Question of the Violation of Human Rights in the Occupied Arab Territories, Including Palestine, Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, Mr John DUGARD, on the Situation of Human Rights in the Palestinian Territories Occupied by Israel Since 1967, Submitted in Accordance with Commission Resolutions 1993/2 A and 2002/8, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/30 (2002), at 12.

233. Human Rights Situation in Palestine and Other Occupied Arab Territories, Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the Implementation of Human Rights Council Resolutions S-9/1 and S-12/1, UN Doc. A/HRC/28/80/Add.1 (2014), at 5–6.

234. Pictet, supra note 108 at 68.

235. Stuart WINER, “IDF Raids Palestinian Refugee Camp Where Soldier Was Killed” The Times of Israel (28 May 2018), online: The Times of Israel: <https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-raids-palestinian-refugee-camp-where-solider-was-killed/>.

236. Anna AHRONHEIM and Herb KEINON, “Palestinian Who Killed Soldier with Marble Slab Arrested by Shin Bet”, The Jerusalem Post (13 June 2018), online: The Jerusalem Post: <https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/shin-bet-army-arrest-palestinian-who-killed-20-year-old-elite-idf-soldier-559826>.

237. Michael BACHNER, “Palestinian Gets Life Sentence for Killing IDF Soldier with Stone Slab Last Year”, Times of Israel (22 July 2019), online: Times of Israel <https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-raids-palestinian-refugee-camp-where-solider-was-killed/>.

238. David HALBFINGER, “Israeli Soldier Is Killed in West Bank as Tensions Rise Over Annexation Push” The New York Times (12 May 2020), online: The New York Times <https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/12/world/middleeast/israel-soldier-killed-west-bank.html>.

239. Hagar SHEZAF, “Shin Bet Arrests Palestinian Suspected of Killing Israeli Soldier in West Bank” Haaretz (7 June 2020), online: Haaretz <https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-shin-bet-announces-arrest-of-palestinian-suspected-of-killing-of-israeli-soldier-1.8903694>.

240. Dowdeswell, supra note 222 at 835.

241. Geneva Convention IV, supra note 5 at art. 77.

242. Jean PICTET, Commentary: IV Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (Geneva: ICRC, 1958) at 366.

243. Knut DORMANN, “The Legal Situation of ‘Unlawful/Unprivileged Combatants’” (2003) 85 International Review of the Red Cross 45; Manooher MOFIDI and Amy E. ECKERT, “Unlawful Combatants or Prisoners of War: The Law and Politics of Labels” (2004) 36 Cornell International Law Journal 59; Terry GIL and Elies VAN SLIEDREGT, “Guantanamo Bay: A Reflection on the Legal Status and Rights of Unlawful Enemy Combatants” (2005) 1 Utrecht Law Review 28.

244. Rosemary RAYFUSE and Kara ILAND, “Undoing the Done: Implications of the Denial of Prisoner of War Status to Guantanamo Bay Detainees” (2002) 2 ISIL Year Book of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law 99; Neil MCDONALD and Scott SULLIVAN, “Rational Interpretation in Irrational Times: The Third Geneva Convention and the ‘War on Terror’” (2003) 44 Harvard International Law Journal 301; Derek JINKS, “The Declining Significance of POW Status” (2004) 45 Harvard International Law Journal 367; Robert J. DELAHUNTY and John YOO, “Statehood and the Third Geneva Convention” (2006) 46 Virginia Journal of International Law 131; Curtis BRADLEY, “The United States, Israel & Unlawful Combatants” (2009) 12 Green Bag 397.

245. Promotion and Protection of all Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to Development, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms while Countering Terrorism, Martin SCHEININ, UN Doc. A/HRC/6/17/Add.4 (2007), at 13, para. 26.

246. Ibid.

247. Ibid., at 13, para. 27.

248. Ibid.

249. Nadine MARROUSHI, “50 Years of Israeli Occupation: Four Outrageous Facts about Military Order 101” Amnesty International (25 August 2017), online: Amnesty International <https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/08/50-years-of-israeli-occupation-four-outrageous-facts-about-military-order-101/>.

250. Israeli Army, Proclamations, Orders and Appointments (West Bank), No. 21 (1970) at 733.

251. COOK, Catherine, HANIEH, Adam, and KAY, Adah, “Discrimination and Denial, Israel and Palestinian Child Political Prisoners: A Case Study of Israel's Manipulation of the U.N. Human Rights System” (2005) 13 Palestine Yearbook of International Law 91Google Scholar; EINAT, Tomer, PARCHEV, Ofer, and LITVIN, Anat, “Who Knows Who Cares for Me: C'est la Vie: Abuse of Israeli and Palestinian Prisoners’ Human and Medical Rights—A Foucaultian Perspective” (2016) 96 Prison Journal 167CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Iyad MISK, “The Current Situation and Conditions of Imprisonment of Palestinians in Israeli Prisons and Detention Facilities”, UN International Meeting on The Question of Palestine, 7–8 March 2011, at 4.

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257. P.G. Supplement 1, No. 652 (14 December 1936) at 399.

258. Jordan Official Gazette No. 1487 (1 May 1960) at 374.

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263. Art. 8(2)(a)(vii).

264. Art. 7(1)(e).

265. Introductory sentence of art. 7(1) of the Rome Statute.

266. Situation in the State of Palestine, supra note 16.

267. “Statement of ICC Prosecutor, Fatou Bensouda, respecting an Investigation of the Situation in Palestine” ICC (3 March 2021), online: ICC <https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=210303-prosecutor-statement-investigation-palestine>.

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