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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 May 2025
In the 1990s East Asian experienced a turn toward nationalism that includes an extremist, xenophobic wing, which expanded further during the 2000s. This is true in all three of the major countries in the region; Japan, China, and South Korea. In Japan, for example, Abe Shinzo, whose platform calls for hawkish foreign policies and the rewriting of the postwar constitution based on cultural nationalism, returned as the prime minister in 2012. The anti-Korean slanders that were limited earlier to cyberspace, as discussed by Rumi Sakamoto in her article earlier in this reader, have since taken to the streets in Japanese cities. How to deal with such a phenomenon, described by Tessa Morris-Suzuki as a kind of “mass retreat to the psychological fortresses of ethno-nationalism and racism” (p. 5), is becoming an ever more pertinent issue for all East Asian countries and their nationals.
1 Laura Hein, “The Cultural Career of the Japanese Economy: Developmental and Cultural Nationalisms in Historical Perspective,” Japan Focus, 26 June 2008.
2 For example, Kim Gwang-sang, “’Sato Masaru gensho’ hihan,” Impaction, No 160, November 2007
3 For essays by Kang and other participants in this controversy, see Iinuma Jirō ed., Zainichi Kankoku Chōsenjin: Sono Nihon Shakai ni okeru Sonzai Kachi, Osaka, Kaifūsha, 1988.
4 Kang Sangjung and Murai Osamu, “Ran-Hansha suru Orientarizumu,” Gendai Shisō, May 2003, pp. 182-197.
5 Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” Foreign Affairs, vol. 72, no. 3, Summer, 1993, pp. 22-49; this essay was later incorporated in Huntington's book The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1996.
6 H. D. Harootunian, “America's Japan / Japan's Japan,” in Masao Miyoshi and H. D. Harootunian eds., Japan in the World, Durham N.C., Duke University Press, 1993, 196-221.
7 Nishikawa Nagao, Kokkyō no Koekata, Tokyo, Chikuma Shobō, 1992.
8 Komori Yôichi and Takahashi Tetsuya, Nashonaru Hisutorī o Koete, Tokyo, Tokyo Daigaku Shuppankai, 1998.
9 From 1965 onward, historian Ienaga Saburō filed a series of suits against the Japanese Ministry of Education, which had demanded changes to history textbooks that he had authored. During the 1980s, the textbook controversies became international, as China and other Asian counties protested reported plans by the Japanese government to replace the word “invasion” in descriptions of Japan's role in the Asia-Pacific War with the word “advance.” These controversies formed the background to the protests over nationalist textbooks in the second half of the 1990s. See Ienaga Saburō (trans. Richard H. Minear), Japan's Past, Japan's Future: One Historian 's Odyssey, Lanham, Rowman and Littlefield, 2001; Laura Hein and Mark Selden eds., Censoring History: Citizenship and Memory in Japan, Germany and the United States, Armonk, M. E. Sharpe, 2000.
10 Katō Norihiro, Haisengoron, Tokyo, Kōdansha, 1997; the three essays contained in this book were originally published as journal articles between 1995 and 1997.
11 Abe Shinzō, Utsukushii Kuni e, Tokyo, Bungei Shunjūsha, 2006; Kang Sangjung's Aikoku no Sahō (Tokyo, Asahi Shinshō, 2006), published a few months later, can be read as a response to Abe.
12 Kang Sangjung, Orientarizumu no Kanata e, Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 1996.
13 Kang Sangjung, Nashonarizumu, Tokyo, Iwanami Shoten, 2001.
14 Kang Sangjung, Nicchō Kankei no Kokufuku, Tokyo, Shūeisha Shinsho, 2003.
15 Kang Sangjung, Higashi Ajia Kyōdō no Ie o Mezashite, Tokyo, Heibonsha, 2001.
16 See Wada Haruki, Tōhoku Ajia Kyōdō no Ie: Shin-Chiikishugi Sengen, Tokyo, Heibonsha, 2003.
17 For Kang Sangjung and Hyun Mooam, Dai-Nihon, Manshu Teikoku no Isan, Tokyo, Kōdansha, 2010.
18 For example, Tawara Sōichirō, Kang Sangjung and Nishibe Susumu, Aikokushin, Tokyo, Kōdansha, 2003; Kaneko Masaru, Kang Sangjung, Kim Mirei, Kobayashi Yoshinori et al., Aikokushin, Kokueki to wa nani ka, Tokyo, Asukomu, 2004.
19 For example, Kang Sangjung, Omoni, Tokyo, Shûeisha, 2010. This is a novel closely based on the life of Kang's mother.
20 For example, C. Douglas Lummis, Kang Sangjung and Kayano Toshihito, Kokka to Aidentiti o Tou, Tokyo, Iwanami Bukkuretto, 2009; Kang Sangjung and Nakajima Takeshi, Nihon: Konkyochi kara no Toi, Tokyo, Mainichi Shimbunsha, 2008.
21 For a careful discussion of this phenomenon, see Rumi Sakamoto, ‘Koreans, Go Home!’ Internet Nationalism in Contemporary Japan as a Digitally Mediated Subculture, The Asia-Pacific Journal Vol 9, Issue 10 No 2, March 7, 2011.
22 See for example “Kakuheiki Shōmetsu to Genpatsu Jikō: Kang Kyōjū ni Kiku,” Shinano Mainichi Shimbun, 7 August 2011.
23 See, for example, Kang Sangjung, “Minnan ga Tsuzuite iru,” Shinano Mainichi Shimbun, 17 June 2011.
24 See Anthony Smith, Nationalism, Oxford, Polity Press, 2001.
25 Immanuel Wallerstein, Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth Century Paradigms, Temple University Press, 1991, p. 75.
26 Komatsukawa Incident - A Zainichi Korean man named Yi Jin-U (Ri Chin'u) was tried and found guilty of raping and murdering a high-school girl and a young woman in 1958. Yi was a highly intelligent young man, whose letters reflecting on his crime and impending execution evoked a strong response, and became (amongst other things) the subject of Ōshima Nagisa's film Kōshikei [Death by Hanging]
27 Kim Hiro Incident - In 1968, Kim Hiro, a Zainichi Korean from an impoverished background, shot two gangsters and then held eighteen people hostage in a siege at a guest house before surrendering to police, an event that attracted massive nationwide media coverage in Japan.
28 Mishima Incident - the ritual suicide in 1970 of novelist Mishima Yukio and an associate following a far-fetched attempt to carry out a right-wing military coup d’état.
29 United Red Army Incident - A siege at Mount Asama in 1972 which resulted in the arrest of five members of the extreme left-wing United Red Army [Rengō Sekigun]. It was subsequently revealed that fourteen other members of the group had been killed in internal purges by their comrades.
30 Ernest Gellner, Nationalism, New York, New York University Press, 1997.
31 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, Cleveland and New York, World Publishing Co., 1962, p. 478.
32 See, for example, Kang Sangjung, Kang Sangjung no Seijigaku, Tokyo Shūeisha Shinsho, 2006, ch. 6.
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