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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 07 May 2025
An international discourse of China-in-Africa has emerged, particularly in Western countries with dense links to Africa: the US, UK and France. While China's presence in Africa should be critically examined, interest in it in the West is skewed by elite perceptions of China as a rival for resources and influence in Africa and as a rising power, with the tone of the discourse far more negative than that accorded the Western presence in Africa.
1 See Maxi Schoeman, “China in Africa: the Rise of a Hegemony?” in China and Africa: Partners in Development and Security? Danish Institute of International Affairs, Copenhagen, Aug. 23, 2007.
2 Ironically, the discourse is most developed in the US, yet the US stood alone in refusing to recognize a right to development when the United Nations adopted it in 1998. “US Votes Against Development as Basic Human Right,” Inter Press Service (IPS), Dec. 10, 1998.
3 “Patron of African Misgovernment,” New York Times (NYT), Feb. 19, 2007.
4 See, e.g. Yaroslav Trofimov, “In Africa, China's Expansion Begins to Stir Resentment,” Wall Street Journal (WSJ), Feb. 2, 2007.
5 Jian Junbo, “China's Role in Africa,” Beijing Review 6:15 (February 8, 2007).
6 The US government has noted the appeal of China in Africa. James Swan (Dep. Ass't. Sec. of State), “Remarks to Columbia University's Third Annual China Symposium,” Apr. 20, 2007; Darren Taylor, “African Respect for Chinese Expatriates Grows,” VOA News, May 8, 2007.
7 Robyn Dixon, “Africa Holds Attractions for China Leaders.” Los Angeles Times (LAT), Jan. 31, 2007; “China,” Mbendi: Information for Africa, 2007; “Foreign Firms are Driving our Surplus,” Xinhua (XH), March 12, 2007; “Goodwill Gives Obama Added Leverage in Africa,” Reuters, July 9, 2009; “China SOEs Move to Fill Africa Investment Gap,” Business Daily Update, June 16, 2009; “China Says Export Slide Deep,” United Press International (UPI), Aug. 13, 2009.
8 “World must do more for Africa, China's Premier says,” Agence France Presse (AFP), May 16, 2007.
9 Hany Besada, “China in Africa – a Reliable Friend?” Taipei Times, March 25, 2007:8.
10 Harry Broadman, Africa's Silk Road: China and India's New Economic Frontier (Washington: World Bank, 2006):11-12, 81; “Africa Trade Profile,” Africa News, July 21, 2009; “Continent Must Engage China with Win-Win Strategies, Mmegi (Gaborone), Oct. 20, 2009; “AGOA's Poor Show Blamed on Issues ‘Unique’ to Continent, “The East African (Nairobi), July 6, 2009. Some 21% of PRC imports of cotton and 26% of imports of diamonds came from Africa in 2005. About 15.4% of Africa's exports of logs went to China. Ron Sandrey, “The African Merchandise Trading Relationship with China, “Inside Asia, 2006 (3-4):8-10.
11 US Department of Commerce, U.S.-African Trade Profile (Washington: International Trade Administration, 2006): 1, 2; “US Trade Preference Programs,” CQ Congressional Testimony, Nov. 17, 2009; “Reforming African Economies Continue to Reap Benefits,” US State News, Sept. 7, 2009;
12 “Analysis of China's Energy Import and Export,” XH, Mar. 19, 2007; “China Oil Demand Seen at 7.01 mln bpd,” XH, Nov. 10, 2006; “China's Thirst for Energy Complicating Global Policy,” Petroleumworld.com, Jan. 18, 2006; “China Oil Dependence Sparks Concerns,” Radio Free Asia, Jan. 5, 2009.
13 Erica Downs, China (Washington: Brookings Institution 2006):31. Similarly, Nigeria accounts for 11% of US crude imports. “US Warns of Al-Qaeda Attacks,” This Day (TD) (Nigeria), September 7, 2007.
14 B. McKenna, “Don't Expect ‘Energy Independence’ to Clear the Air on Climate Change,” Globe & Mail (Toronto)(G&G), Jan. 30, 2007 (US imported 60.3% of oil it consumed in 2006); David Bird, “Africa Tops Mideast for US Crude,” Houston Chronicle (HC), Feb. 25, 2007 (22% of 2006 US oil imports from Africa).
15 David Nason, “Troubled Waters Over Oil's Future,” The Australian, June 20, 2005.
16 John Ekongo “China and Equal Partner to Africa,” New Era (Namibia), May 6, 2009; “Full Text of Chinese Premier's Press Conference in Egypt,” XH, Nov. 10, 2009.
17 See, e.g., Peter Brookes, “Into Africa: China's Scramble for Influence and Oil,” Heritage Lectures No. 1006 (Washington: Heritage Foundation, 2007):2; Hamish Macrae, “We Fail to Work with China at our Peril,” The Independent, Feb. 14, 2007:32.
18 See Bassam Fattouh, “The Origins and Evolution of the Current International Oil Pricing System: a Critical Assessment,” in Robert Mabro (ed.), Oil in the 21st Century: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006):41-100.
19 Peter Custers, “Unequal Exchange and Poverty in African Countries Exporting Primary Commodities.” European Conference of People's Global Action. Sept. 2, 2002.
20 Terry Lynn Karl, “The Social and Political Consequences of Oil,” in Cutler Cleveland (ed.), Encyclopedia of Energy (San Diego: Elsevier, 2004). Angolan oil creates twice as many jobs per million boe (barrels of oil equivalent) in the US than in Angola. Keith Myers, “Petroleum, Poverty and Security,” (London: Chatham House Africa Programme Briefing Paper 2005):6.
21 Lynn Cook, “Big Oil Hashes Out Issues with State-Run Firms,” HC, Sept. 17, 2004.
22 In the period 1956-2005, China provided US$44 billion in low or no-interest loans to African states for 900 infrastructure projects. “China Looks to Africa with an Eye to Reaping Financial and Political Gains,” Associated Press (AP), June 18, 2006.
23 Robert Shephard, et al., “Financing Infrastructure in Africa,” Gridlines No. 13 (Sept. 2006):2.
24 Tony Elumelu, “Obstacles and Opportunities to Financing Infrastructure Projects in Sub-Saharan Africa: the UBA Experience” (Washington: UBA 2006); United Nations, World Economic Situation and Prospects 2007 (New York: UN DE&EA, 2007):105.
25 “Financial Collaboration a New Focus in China-Africa Economic Cooperation,” XH, May 17, 2007; “China's Emerging Role in Africa,” Grid Lines (Washington: World Bank, s.d., 2008?). By mid-2007, China's Exim Bank had provided more than $13.2b in loans for Africa-related projects; those still outstanding were 20% of the bank's business. “Briefing: Asia Banking,” Asia Pulse, July 30, 2007. The loans went 40% to the power sector, 20% to transport, 12% to telecom, 4% to water and 24% to multi-sector commitments. Broad (2005):275. Most of the $20 billion pledged in 2007 will finance exports of Chinese “hightech” products used to build infrastructure in Africa. See Wang Jian-Ye, What Drives China's Growing Role in Africa? (Washington: International Monetary Fund, 2007):10; “The Export-Import Bank of China.”
26 “G8 Raps China for Lending $20b to Africa,” United Press International, (UPI), May 21, 2007. When debt relief, which the G8 regards as aid, is eliminated from calculations, G8 aid to Africa declined by 2% from 2005 to 2006.
Jeffrey Sachs, “Empty Promises,” South China Morning Post (SCMP), Apr. 24, 2007. China does not consider debt relief as aid. Darren Taylor, “Chinese Aid Flows into Africa,” VOANews, May 8, 2007.
27 “Angola: Oil Backed Loan Will Finance Recovery Projects,” Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), Feb. 21, 2005; IRIN, “Angola: Cautious Optimism for 2005,” Jan. 14, 2005; “Angola/China: an Example of South-South Cooperation,” Angolan Press Agency, Mar. 25, 2004; Cindy Hurst, China's Oil Rush in Africa (Washington: Institute for the Analysis of Global Security 2006):10.
28 Lucy Corkin, “Angola Flexes New-Found Muscle,” Business Day (BD)(South Africa), Mar. 23, 2007; Gill, “China's Expanding Role …,” 2007:9. A reviewer has informed us of unpublished information that China's loans to Angola total as much as $13b.
29 “China-Africa Ties Come Under Fresh Scrutiny,” The Nation (Kenya), December 12, 2006; “Beijing Summit: Implications for Africa,” TD, Nov. 5, 2006; Michael Phillips, “G-7 to Warn China over Costly Loans to Poor Countries,” WSJ, Sept. 15, 2006:A2.
30 “It's Trade Not Aid that will Lift Africa from Poverty,” East African (Kenya), November 8, 2005. Sub-Saharan Africa paid $8.3b in interest in 2003; George Kerevan, “So we all Take to the Streets. Will it Work?” Scotsman, June 2, 2005. Until 2005, countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, and Zambia, were spending as much as 40% of their national budgets on debt repayment. “Debt in Africa,” Mbendi.
31 Deborah Brautigam and Adama Gaye, “Is Chinese Investment Good for Africa?” Council on Foreign Relations, Feb. 14, 2007. Former WB economist William Easterly has argued that debt relief presents a moral hazard by encouraging relieved countries to expect additional relief after future borrowings. The White Man's Burden: Why the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good (New York: Penguin Press, 2006).
Of course, because China has so far consistently provided debt relief to African states, does not guarantee it will continue to do so.
32 “Chinese Investors Outpace Indians, British in Ghana,” AFP, June 17, 2006.
33 Andrea Goldstein, et al. China and India: What's in it for Africa? (Paris: OECD 2006):53.
34 Frank Ching, “Cosy Ties, but China Needs to do more for Africa.” Business Times. July 13, 2005.
35 Jennifer Brea, “China's New Scramble for Africa,” American.Com: a Magazine of Ideas Online.
36 “Signing On,” Petroleum Economist, Oct. 2004:1.
37 John McMillan, “Promoting Transparency in Angola,” Journal of Democracy 16:3 (2005)155-169.
38 See John Ghazvinian, Untapped: the Scramble for Africa's Oil (New York: Harcourt 2007).
39 Nicholas Shaxson, Poisoned Wells: the Dirty Politics of African Oil (New York: Palgrave 2007): 217-218. While China is said to have no regard for transparency, Baroness Whitaker stated in a House of Lords debate that due to its connections with international organizations, “China may be interested in supporting the principles of EITI,” “Africa: Chinese Investment,” Lords Hansard, Feb. 6, 2007: Column 670. Any evidence?
40 Afeikhena Jerome, et al., “Addressing Oil Related Corruption in Africa: Is the Push for Transparency Enough?” Review of Human Factor Studies 11(1) (2005):7-32. Ethiopian Premier Meles Zenawi has stated that “it would be wrong for people in the West to assume that they can buy good governance in Africa [which] can only come from inside … [China] does not in any way endanger the reforms of good governance and democracy in Africa because only those that were home-grown ever had a chance of success.” “Ethiopia: PM Opposes ‘Neo-Liberal’ Economic Reforms,” Africa News, Feb. 17, 2007.
41 Scott Pegg, “Can Policy Intervention Beat the Resource Curse? Evidence from the Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project,” African Affairs (AA) 105/418 (2005):1-25.
42 Joshua Eisenman and Joshua Kurlantzick, “China's Africa Strategy,” Current History 105 (691) (2006):219-224; Michael Klare and Daniel Volman, “The African ‘Oil Rush’ and American National Security,” Third World Quarterly 27:4(2006):22-35; Gregory Kane, The Strategic Competition for the Continent of Africa (Carlisle PA: US Army War College 2006); Donovan Chau, Political Warfare in Sub-Saharan Africa: US Capabilities and Chinese Operations in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa (Carlisle, PA: USAWC, 2007).
43 “U.S. Military to Help Secure Oil,” Vanguard (Nigeria), May 22, 2007; “The Oil Need that Fuels US ‘Outreach’ in Africa,” Washington Post (WP), May 28, 2009.
44 Michael Klare, Blood and Oil: the Dangers and Consequences of America's Growing Dependence on Imported Oil (New York: Metropolitan, 2004):144; Lauren Ploch, “Africa Command: US Strategic Interests and the Role of the US Military in Africa,” Congressional Research Service, May 16, 2007.
45 See, e.g., Paul Lubeck, et al., “Convergent Interests: US Energy Security and the ‘Securing’ of Nigerian Democracy,” International Policy Report, Feb., 2007:10.
After the rigged 2007 Nigerian election, the US stated that Nigeria is a strategic partner and it would continue to work with it.
Constante Ikokwu, “US: Nigeria Still Strategic Partner, Despite Election Flaws,” TD, May 19, 2007.
46 Paul Moorcraft, “Strange Bedfellows in Khartoum,” BD, June 22, 2007; Greg Miller, “U.S. Relies on Sudan Despite Condemning It,” LAT, June 11, 2007 (US-Sudan intelligence “liaison visits every day”); US State Dep't, Country Reports on Terrorism, April 30, 2007 (link) (Sudan is “a strong partner in the war on terror”). China has supplied 20% and Russia 40% of Sudan's arms imports. Mark Bromley and Andrea Goldstein, “What China Model can do for Africa,” Financial Times (FT), Feb. 16, 2007. France and other states also arm Sudan, F. William Engdahl, “Darfur: Forget Genocide, There's Oil,” Asia Times, May 25, 2007. On China's role in persuading Sudan to accept UN peacekeepers in Darfur, see Jonathan Holslag, “China's Diplomatic Victory in Darfur” (Brussels Institute of Contemporary China Studies, 2007). Despite Darfur, after the 2005 Khartoum-southern Sudan peace deal, US oil firms have renewed their interest in Sudan oil. Matthew Chen, “Chinese National Oil Companies and Human Rights”, Orbis (Winter 2007):41-54. India, which partners with China and Malaysia in developing Sudan's oil, supports Sudan's position on Darfur. Luke Patey, “A Complex Reality: The Strategic Behavior of Multinational Oil Corporations and the New Wars in Sudan” (Copenhagen: Danish Institute for International Studies, 2006):37.
47 Jedrezej George Frynas and Manuel Paul, “A New Scramble for African Oil? Historical, Political and Business Perspectives,” AA 106:423(2007):229-251. Some 95% of oil produced in Africa's largest petro-state, Nigeria, is generated by five Western companies: Shell, Exxon, Chevron, Total and Agip. Ibid.
48 Darren Taylor, “Concerns Mount about Chinese Oil Interests in Africa,” VOANews, May 3, 2007; Nicholas Freeman, The Dragon on the Nile: China's Pursuit of Energy Security in Sudan (Annapolis: US Naval Academy 2006): 79.
49 Michael Wines, “China's Influence in Africa Arouses Some Resistance,” NYT, Feb. 10, 2007:3; “Frankenstein in Africa: China Sets Out to Destroy Africa's Manufacturing Sector,” Jan. 1, 2007.
50 “Zambia to Initiate Campaign to Boost Local Products Consumption,” XH, Aug. 16, 2005. Nigel Harris, The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War (London: Taurus, 2003). Many African countries similarly cannot compete with Latin American states in the production of items like T-shirts. See Uma Subramanian and Matthias Matthijs, “Can Sub-Saharan Africa Leap into Global Network Trade?” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4112 (2007).
51 “Africa a Frontier of Opportunity for Expanding China,” AP, February 8, 2007; Catherine Fournet-Guerin, “New Chinese Immigration in Antananarivo,” Chinese Perspectives, No. 67 (2006):45-57.
52 “Zhongguo Geti Shangren Taojin Feizhou: Jianku Chuangye Ganshang Gan Gan” (China's Individual Entrepreneurs' Gold Rush in Africa: Hardship in Building a Business; Dare to Think Dare to Do), Renmin Wang correct?, Aug. 17, 2005.
53 “Is the Awakening Giant a Monster,” The Economist, Feb. 13, 2003.
54 These consumers are not limited to purchasers of basic commodities. Many African businesses buy Chinese goods, often machinery, inputs to production, and wholesale commodities. See, e.g. “How Chinese are Taking Over Kampala's Business Hub,” New Vision (Uganda), May 2, 2007.
55 Jane Kennan and Christopher Stevens. Opening the Package: the Asian Drivers and Poor-Country Trade (Brighton: Institute of Development Studies [IDS], 2005):2.
56 “China to Promote Trade, Economic Links with Africa in 2006,” XH, January 6.
57 Chris Edwards and Rhys Jenkins, The Effect of China and India's Growth and Trade Liberalisation on Poverty in Africa (London: UK Department for International Development, 2005):28-29, 38. Such studies of course cannot take into account smuggled goods, in which the proportions of consumer and non-consumer goods are uncertain.
58 Nick Thiong'o, “China Unveils Move to Curb Sub-Standard Exports,” Kenya Times, Nov. 23, 2006. China's Ministry of Commerce has ordered PRC firms in Africa to hire local workers and meet international safety standards. Gill and Riley, “The Tenuous …,” 2007:47. The PRC State Council has issued “Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardize Enterprises Overseas Investment” requiring PRC firms overseas to abide by local laws, protect labor rights and the environment and practice corporate social responsibility. Stephen Marks, “The Summit in Beijing,” Pambazuka News, Dec. 14, 2006.
59 This is not to argue that in some sectors and with regard to certain potentialities, the impact is not significant. See Raphael Kaplinsky, et al., “The Impact of China on Sub Saharan Africa,” April 2006.
60 Robert Devlin, The Emergence of China: Opportunities and Challenges for Latin America and the Caribbean (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007): Table 5.5.
61 See, e.g., Karen Palmer, “Asian Imports Gutting African Textile Trade,” SCMP, Dec. 14, 2005:9. Africa's 2003 T&T exports were worth US$2.3b, less than one percent of a $400b world trade. “How Many Will Closure of Textile Company Affect?” New Era (Namibia), Jan. 22, 2007.
62 Peter Quartey, “The Textile and Clothing Industry in Ghana,” in Herbert Rauch and Rudolph Traub-Merz (eds.), The Future of the Textile and Clothing Industry in Sub-Saharan Africa (Bonn: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2006):135-146. By March, 2005, the industry only employed 3,000. Ibid, p. 136.
63 Rudolf Traub-Merz, “The African Textile and Clothing Industry: From Import Substitution to Export Orientation,” in Rauch and Traub-Merz, The Future …, 2006:9-35. The 2001 film T-Shirt Travels shows that after the 1991 opening of Zambian markets to trade in second-hand clothes, every clothing factory closed. See this link. Claims have been made that Chinese goods destroyed the textile industry in Zimbabwe. “‘Cheap Chinese Goods Destroyed Zim Economy,‘” The Namibian, August 28, 2007. The head of the International Textile Garment and Leather Workers Federation pointed out in 2004, however, that “in Zimbabwe some 20,000 textile and clothing jobs have disappeared directly or indirectly due to imported used clothing from the West.” “Western Charity Undermines African Textiles,” New Internationalist, no. 373 (Nov. 2004):1. T&T manufacturers in Zimbabwe attributed de-industrialization to second-hand clothing imports, the impact of Western-imposed structural adjustment programs and drought. Simone Field, The Internationalisation of the Second-Hand Clothing Trade: the Case of Zimbabwe, unpub'd PhD diss., Coventry University, 2000:301.
64 Second hand clothing was 26.8% by value of Sub-Saharan Africa's imports in 2003. Sally Baden and Catherine Barber, “The Impact of the Second Hand Clothing Trade on Developing Countries,” Oxfam Briefing Paper (2005):5.
65 “Social Forum Best Placed to Question World Order,” East African Standard (Kenya) (EAS), January 22, 2007; Gloria Otieno, Trade Liberalization and Poverty in Kenya: A Case Study of the Cotton Textiles Subsector (Nairobi: Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis, 2006).
66 Raphael Kaplinsky and Mike Morris, “Dangling by a Thread: How Sharp are the Chinese Scissors?” (Brighton: IDS 2006):vi.
67 Duane Newman, “Duane's World,” BD, December 4, 2006; Mills Soko, “SA Can Cut Lessons from Chinese Cloth,” BD, Oct. 19, 2006.
68 “Lesotho Shows Textile Woes are About More than China,” BD, July 1, 2006. About one third of China's textile exports are made by “foreign” (mostly Hong Kong or Taiwan) -owned firms. “E-TV Interview with Charge d'Affaire Mr. Zhou Yuxiao,” PRC Embassy, South Africa, April 13, 2006; Mills Soko, “The Lessons of China's Rag Trade Revolution,” Cape Argus (S. Africa), Feb. 1, 2007.
69 “Poorer Nations Feel China's Weight,” International Herald Tribune (IHT), Apr. 3, 2007:14.
70 Gumisai Mutume, “Loss of Textile Market Costs African Jobs,” Africa Renewal 20(1) (2006):18-22; Kaplinsky and Morris, “The Impact …” 2006:34.
71 John Miller, “Nike to the Rescue? Africa Needs Better Jobs, Not Sweatshops,” Dollars & Sense, Oct. 21, 2006.
72 “Textiles No Longer Hanging by a Thread,” IRIN, July 3, 2006; Stephanie Hanes, “Hey, Nice Clothes, But are They Ethical,” Christian Science Monitor, Oct. 13, 2006:1; “Textile Producers Get a Boost from Trade Bill..,” allAfrica.com, Dec. 12, 2006.
73 Ralaivelo Maminirinarivo, “The Textile and Clothing Industry of Madagascar,” in Jauch and Traub-Merz, The Future … 2006:178-192; “A Nice Fairy Tale,” Economist, Dec. 9, 2006; “International Textile Markets Rushing on for Eco-Friendly Fabrics,” World Trade Review, Apr. 1-15, 2007; “Madagascar: Outlook for 2007-08: Economic Growth,” Economist Intelligence Unit, Mar. 7, 2007; “Community of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) Deputy Secretary General Stephen Karangizi Testifies Before House Ways and Means Sub-Committee,” Fair Disclosure (FD) Wire, Nov. 17, 2009; “Business Presses Administration for Quick Madagascar AGOA Business Decision,” Inside US Trade, Oct. 30, 2009.
74 “Moroccan Textiles Manufacturers …” Reuters (TV), Mar. 28, 2007.
75 Traub-Merz, “The African Textile …,” 2006:17, 25. S. Africa's unions estimated 60,000-70,000 jobs lost, but the University of Cape Town School of Economics found only a third of that number disappeared; other jobs were informalized. Dave Marrs, “Chinese Textile Quotas a Case of Too Little, Too Late,” BD, Nov. 13, 2006.
76 Kaplinsky, “The Impact …,” 2006:13. About 85% of cloth used in African apparel exports to the US is made with Asian, mainly Chinese, fabric. “AGOA Forum 2006: Stakeholders Seek Ways to Broaden AGOA Opportunities.”
77 “Lesotho Shows …,” 2006. See also Kaplinsky, “The Impact …,” 2006:13, 26.
78 Lumengo Bonga-Bonga, “China Can Help Revive the African Textile Industry,” Univers ok? Foreign Affairs, December 7, 2006. Interview with Prof. Bonga-Bonga; Johannesburg, Aug. 1, 2007.
79 “Quotas on Chinese Textile-Clothing Imports Start,” China Monitor (South Africa) No. 14 (Jan. 2007):16. Quotas were eased from March, 2007 because some T&T manufactures could no longer get fabric from China, leading to job losses quotas were intended to prevent.
Mathabo Le Roux, “Minister Rows Back on Chinese Imports,” BD, Mar. 29, 2007:1. South African unions did however deem the quotas a success. “High Hopes as New Talks Start in Clothing Industry,” Business Times, May 13, 2007. Yet, predictably, the gap left by restricting PRC T&T was filled by imports from other countries. Ethel Hazelhurst, “Imports from China Fall, but Products Take Detour to SA,” Star, Sept. 3, 2007.
Don Ross, “Let Quotas on Clothing and Textile Imports Die,” The Star (Johannesburg), May 28, 2008.
80 “China to Make More Efforts to Help Africa Develop Textile Industry,” XH, Oct. 18, 2006; “E-TV Interview … 2006.
81 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Asian Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Towards a New Era of Cooperation (New York: United Nations, 2007):12, 19, 51, 56-57.
82 “China Plays Increasing Role in Continent's Development,” IPS, May 17, 2007; Chen Deming, “Cooperation Benefits All People,” Business Daily Update, Nov. 9, 2009; “China-Africa Cooperation Builds on Africa's Capacity: Chinese Premier,” XH, Nov. 8, 2009.
83 UNDP, Asian Foreign … 2007:55-56.
84 See, e.g., Brautigam and Gaye, “Is Chinese Investment. …,” 2007.
85 “Africa to be More Attractive for Chinese Investors,” XH, Feb. 3, 2007.
86 See, e.g., Trofimov, “In Africa …” 2007; Olin Freeman, “Africa Discovers Dark Side of its New Colonial Master,” Sunday Telegraph, Feb. 4, 2007; Robyn Dixon, “Africans Lash Out at Chinese Employers,” LAT, Oct. 6, 2006; Roy Carroll, “China's Goldmine,” Guardian, Mar.28, 2006.
87 Alastair Fraser and John Lungu, For Whom the Windfalls: Winners and Losers in the Privatisation of Zambia's Copper Mines (Lusaka: Civil Society Trade Network of Zambia and Catholic Centre for Justice, Peace and Development, 2007).
88 Christian Aid, A Rich Seam: Who Benefits from Rising Commodity Prices (London: CA, 2007):21.
89 Dixon, “Africans Lash …,” 2006. On NFCA claims of furthering a “social responsibility plan” among miners and future spending plans see “Zambian Councilor Praises Chinese Investment,” XH, July 14, 2007; “Chambishi Mines Launches Social Responsibility Plan,” Times of Zambia (TOZ), July 10, 2007.; Interview with Prof. John Lungu, Copperbelt University, July 14, 2008.
90 John Craig, “Putting Privatization into Practice: the Case of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Limited,” Journal of Modern African Studies 30:3 (2001):389-410; Christian Aid, A Rich Seam … 2007:21.
91 Fraser and Lungu, For Whom …, 2007:48.
92 Charlotte Mathews, “Metorex Ramps Up its Copper Exposure,” BD, Feb. 5, 2007; “Zambia: Conflict Looms Over Revision of Mineral Tax,” IPS, Nov. 15, 2005.
93 “State Gets $71 Million Tax from Mines,” TOZ, Feb. 22, 2007.
94 Christian Aid, A Rich Seam …, 2007:22. Strikes occurred at the Konkola and Kansanshi mines in the summer of 2007 and resulted in the firing of strike organizers at the latter. “FQMO Fires Four Kansanshi Miners,” TOZ, July 27, 2007; Andy Blamey, “Lost Output from Strikes around 39,000 mt: Barclays,” Metals Week, August 6, 2007.
95 Christian Aid, A Rich Seam …: 24.
96 Western media often quote a politician who expounds that hierarchy. Guy Scott, a white farmer, ex-Minister of Agriculture, and secretary general of the opposition Patriotic Front (PF), has said “People are saying: ‘We've had bad people before. The whites were bad, the Indians were worse, but the Chinese are worst of all.‘” Chris McGreal, “Chinese Influx Revives Colonial Fears,” Guardian, Feb. 9, 2007.
97 “Zambia Opposition Chief Files Complaint Over Amin Comparison,” AFP, Sept. 17, 2006.
98 Amos Malupeng and Brighton Phiri, “Sata Visits Taiwan,” The Post (Lusaka), Feb. 6, 2007.
99 Ni Yangshuo. 2006. “Servir d'intermediaire pour Faciliter les Rapports entre la Chine et le Nigeria” (To serve as an intermediary to facilitate rapport between China and Africa), Chinafrique. No. 10;
100 UNDP, Asian Foreign … 2007:59-60; Craig Timberg, “From Competitors to Trade Partners,” WP, Dec. 3, 2006.
101 It is often supposed that state-owned PRC construction firms in Africa accept a low profit rate because they receive subsidies, but construction firms' profits in China average only 2-3%. “High Debt Rate, Price War Haunt China's Construction Industry,” XH, Mar. 21, 2007. The question of whether Chinese firms also generally receive an advantage in obtaining construction contracts in Africa on projects financed by China has not yet been resolved.
102 World Bank, Global Development Finance (Washington: WB, 2003):95.
103 Ernest Harsch, “Foreign Investment on Africa's Agenda,” Africa Recovery 17:2 (July, 2003):12-16; “Encouraging Businesswomen in Africa,” 2002, (profitability for US affiliates in Africa 25% in 1997, but 12% worldwide).
104 UNDP, Asian Foreign …, 2007:57-59. China is also building large smelters in other African countries, e.g. Zambia and Egypt. “How China is Cementing Resources Globally,” Asia Pulse, Aug. 20, 2007; “CITIC to Construct Smelter in Egypt,” IHT, September 12, 2006.
105 “China Cobalt Firms Mull Congo Plants After Export Ban,” Reuters, May 9, 2007.
106 Shashank Bengali, “An African Building Boom Made in China,” Star Tribune (Minneapolis), Sept. 18, 2006:13A;
107 James K. Jackson, “US Direct Investment Abroad: Trends and Current Issues,” Congressional Research Service, 2006:3
108 US Department of Commerce, “US-African …,”2006:13. For statistics on Western oil firms' African investments, see He Wenping, “Zhong Fei Guanxi Fazhan Chudongle Sheide Shenjing” (Whose Nerve has the Development of China-African Relations Touched), Shijie Zhishi No. 19 (2006): 30-32.
109 “Good Man in Africa,” China Daily, May 11, 2007.
110 See, e.g., Kevin Kerr, “Into Africa: Commentary: China's Tentacles Reach Throughout the Continent,” MarketWatch, Jan. 9, 2007; Will Hutton, “Does the Future Really Belong to China?” Prospect (Jan. 2007).
111 William Hartung and Frida Berrigan, “Militarization of U.S. Africa Policy, 2000-2005,” World Policy Institute Arms Trade Center; Daniel Volman, “Obama Moves Ahead with Africom,” The Zeleza Post, Dec. 13, 2009. The 2007 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Arms Transfers Database (link) indicates that the total inventory value (TIV) of US arms sold to 12 African states from 1997-2006 was US$6.415 billion, while the TIV of Chinese arms sold to 13 African states in the same period was $564 million.
112 “African States Urged to Maintain Stability,” EAS, May 6, 2004; Nick Mathiason, “Western Bankers and Lawyers ‘Rob Africa of $150bn Every Year,‘” Independent, Jan. 21, 2007, p.1; Africa All Party Parliamentary Group, The Other Side of the Coin: the UK and Corruption in Africa (London: AAPPG, 2006):20; “$11.5 Trillion Siphoned Offshore,” Public Agenda (Ghana), Mar 10, 2006.
113 On the African brain drain to developed states and the training of African professionals in China, see Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, “Friends and Interests: China's Distinctive Links with Africa,” African Studies Review 50:3 (Dec. 2007).
114 An example is the notion that China dominates Sudan and Zimbabwe, while protecting their regimes against a Western drive for “democracy and human rights.” See Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, East Mountain Tiger, West Mountain Tiger: China, the West and ‘Colonialism’ in Africa (Baltimore: University of Maryland Series on Contemporary Asian Studies, no. 182, 2007); Schoeman 2007.
115 A US official has stated, “To say that the subject of ‘China in Africa’ fascinates the US government and private sector is something of an understatement.” Claudia Anyaso, “Remarks at the China in Africa Today Seminar,” US Department of State, March 6, 2007. The U.S. House subcommittee on Africa vice-chair has said, “China's increasing engagement in Africa is a concern, and we need to focus on it before Beijing becomes fully established.” Kathy Legget, “China's Expansion into Africa Poses New Challenges for the US,” WSJ, March 30, 2005:1. China in Africa figures in US discussions of a non-Western challenge to US hegemony. See Steven Weber, “A World with the West,” National Interest (July-Aug. 2007). Half of respondents to a poll of 7,500 Americans indicated they regard China's influence in Africa as a “great threat” or “threat” to US national interests. “UPI/ZogbyPoll: China's Influence in Africa,” UPI, July 27, 2007.
116 While aid policies are beyond this paper's scope, China, a developing country, gave Africa $5.5b in aid from 2000-2006, according to Economist Intelligence Unit estimates. Africapractice, The Impact of the Chinese Presence in Africa (London: Africapractice 2007):8. Some 44% of China's foreign aid is devoted to Africa; less than 1% of the US aid budget is spent in sub-Saharan Africa. “Comoran President Praises China-Africa Cooperation as Model,” XH, Oct. 23, 2006; Torcuil Crichton, “When it Comes to Africa, Bush has More on his Mind than Aid,” Sunday Herald (Scotland), June 12, 2005. Until 2008 and the election of the Guomindang's Ma Yingjeou as Taiwan's president, there was competition between the PRC and Taiwan for recognition by African states. By that year, only four African states recognized Taiwan and since then there has been a PRC/Taiwan “diplomatic truce” which has suspended the erstwhile competition. “Minister Francisco H.L. Ou from the Taiwan Foreign Ministry Gives a Talk at National Cheng Kung University,” Research Express 8:10 (May 22, 2009).
117 See, e.g,, “China Means Well in Africa – Ngatjizeko,” The Namibian, Apr. 3, 2007; “A Scramble for the Continent that We May Not Gain From,” EAS, Mar. 27, 2007..
118 See Emma Mawdsley, “China and Africa: Emerging Challenges to the Geographies of Power,” Geography Compass 1 (2007):1-17; Paul Moorcraft, “Why Beijing is Winning in Africa.” BD, Feb. 2, 2007.
119 Global Unease with Major World Powers (Washington: Pew Research Center, 2007):45.
120 David Pilling, “Africa Builds as Beijing Scrambles to Invest,” FT, Dec. 10, 2009.
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