(1) Jurgen Habermas, “Why Europe needs a constitution”, New Left Review, London, Sept-Oct 2001.

(2) Asean, originally created in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, now also includes Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Brunei and Burma.

(3) Nishiwaki Fumiaki, “Relationship between Japan, the US, China, and Russia from the perspective of China's 21st century strategy”, Sekai Shuho, Tokyo, 12 February 2002.

(4) Teleology is the doctrine that certain phenomena are best explained in terms of purpose rather than cause. In the preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Marx regarded the history of western Europe as “an epoch marking progress in the economic development of society”. This preface was never reprinted during his lifetime. In 1877 he commented that one should not “transform [his] historical sketch of the development of western European capitalism into a historical-philosophical theory of universal development predetermined by fate for all nations”. See Saul K Padover, ed, The Letters of Karl Marx, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1979.

(5) Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, The Philosophy of History, Colonial Press, Jackson, Michigan, 1899.

(6) Adam Smith, “An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations”, The Glasgow Edition of the Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith, vol II 2, Oxford University, London, 1976.

(7) Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolute State, Verso, London, 1979.

(8) Op cit. Anderson's analysis of the Asian mode of production is authoritative but he did not touch on the important influence of Smith and the Scottish school on the ideas that Hegel and Marx had about Asia.

(9) “Democracy and Narodism in China” (1912), in V I Lenin, Collected Works, vol 18, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1963; “The Awakening of Asia” (1913), vol 19; “Backward Europe and advanced Asia” (1913), vol 19. The Russian term “narodism” means populism.

(10) “The awakening of Asia”.

(11) “Backward Europe and Advanced Asia”.

(12) Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) was president of the first Chinese republic.

(13) Sun Yat-sen, “Dui Shenhu Shangye Huiyisuo Deng Tuanti De Yanshuo” (speech to organisations including the Kobe Chamber of Commerce), in Sun Zhongshan Quanji (complete works of Sun Zhongshan), Zhonghua shuju, Beijing, 1986.

(14) Ibid.

(15) See Mizoguchi Yuzo, Chugoku No Shiso (Chinese thought), Hoso daigaku kyoiku shinkokai, Tokyo, 1991; Mizoguchi Yuzo, Chugoku Zen Kindai Shiso No Kussetsu to Tenkai (Turns and changes in Chinese premodern thought), Tokyo daigaku shuppankai, Tokyo, 1980.

(16) Miyazaki Ichisada, Toyo Teki Kinsei (East Asia's modern age), Kyoiku Times, Osaka.

(17) Ibid.

(18) Ibid. See also Philip S Golub, “All the riches of the East restored”, Le Monde diplomatique, English language edition, October 2004.