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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 March 2025
Asia and the Pacific—these two geographic, political and cultural regions encompass entire life-worlds, cosmologies and cultures. Yet Indonesia's recent enthusiastic outreach to Melanesia indicates an attempt to bridge both the constructed and actual distinctions between them. While the label ‘Asia-Pacific’ may accurately capture Indonesia's aspirational sphere of influence, it is simultaneously one that many Pacific scholars have resisted, fearing that the cultures and interests of the Pacific are threatened by the hyphen. This fear is justified, we contend, as Indonesia progressively puts itself forward in Pacific political forums as the official representative of ‘its’ Melanesian populations—a considerable number of whom support independence from the Indonesian state.
1 Margaret Jolly notes that Pacific scholars such as Epeli Hau'ofa prefer the term ‘Oceania’ for the region that encompasses the Pacific and parts of Asia. Although originally a colonial label, ‘Oceania’ has been endogenised and claimed by Pacific Islanders in contrast to the term ‘Asia-Pacific’ which derives from foreigners' ‘policy speak’ (see also Arif Dirlik, 1992. ‘The Asia Pacific Idea: Reality and Representation in the Invention of a Regional Structure’, Journal of World History 3:1, pp. 55-79) and carries hegemonic connotations (Margaret Jolly, 2008. ‘The South in Southern Theory: Antipodean Reflections on the Pacific’, Australian Humanities Review 44).
2 Indonesian senior government advisor Dewi Fortuna Anwar has justified this approach, claiming, “there are more Melanesians living in Indonesia, not just in Papua, than in the Pacific. We have people of Melanesian origin living in Maluku and in Ambon and in the NTT province of Indonesia” (Radio New Zealand International, Jakarta Defends Its Policy Approach in Papua Region, August 5, 2013).
3 An independence movement has been underway in the Maluku Islands since 1950 and in West Papua since 1964.
4 Michael Smith and Maureen Dee, 2003. Peacekeeping in East Timor: The Path to Independence, International Peace Academy Occasional Paper Series, Boulder; Matthew LeRiche and Matthew Arnold, 2012. South Sudan: From Revolution to Independence, Columbia University Press, New York City.
5 Chris Ballard, 1999. ‘Blanks in the Writing: Possible Histories for West New Guinea’, Journal of Pacific History 34:2, pp. 148-155.
6 There have been media, political, academic and activist initiatives such as International Lawyers for West Papua, International Parliamentarians for West Papua, several ABC national network stories on West Papua in 2012 and 2013, a US Congress hearing on Crimes Against Humanity: When Will Indonesia's Military Be Held Accountable for Deliberate and Systematic Abuses in West Papua in 2010, and the Biak Massacre Citizens Tribunal held by the West Papua Project at the University of Sydney in 2013, to name a few examples.
7 See for example Winston Tarere's article of May 2, 2014: ‘Indonesia Exercises Cheque-Book Diplomacy Ahead of UN Decolonization Conference’, Daily Post.
8 See Ron Crocombe, 2007. Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West, IPS Publications, Suva, pp. 301-302. While the Pacific region is the localised arena in which Indonesia and West Papua are engaged in their current power struggle, the UN has been the longest standing diplomatic battleground for attempts to establish ultimate sovereignty over West Papua. Supporters of West Papuans' right to self-determination, including Senegal and several other African countries, registered their opposition to Indonesia's takeover of West Papua at the UN as long ago as 1969 after a sham referendum over the territory's sovereignty was overseen by the UN, and as recently as March 2014 when Vanuatu's former Prime Minister Moana Carcasses Kalosil used the Human Rights Council to lambast Indonesia over its human rights violations in West Papua.
9 Papuans settled in the highlands of New Guinea between 40,000 and 50,000 years ago.
10 Austronesians came to the Pacific approximately 4000 years ago.
11 Crocombe, 2007, p. 3.
12 Clive Moore, 2003. New Guinea: Crossing Boundaries and History, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, pg. 62.
13 See for example Pieter Drooglever, 2005. An Act of Free Choice: Decolonization and the Right to Self-Determination in West Papua, One World, Oxford, p. 65.
14 The figures range, depending on whether deaths resulting from direct violence only are counted, or those following on from starvation and other forms of systemic violence are taken into account.
15 See Crocombe 2007, pp. 281-298; Carmel Budiardjo and Soei Liong Liem, 1988. West Papua: The Obliteration of a People, Tapol, London; testimonies on the Biak Massacre Tribunal website; and Elizabeth Brundige, Winter King, Priyneha Vahali, Stephen Vladeck and Xiang Yuan, Indonesian Human Rights Abuses in West Papua: Application of the Law of Genocide to the History of Indonesian Rule, Allard K. Lowenstein International Human Rights Clinic, Yale Law School, 2004.
16 Jim Elmslie and Camellia Webb-Gannon, 2013. ‘A Slow Motion Genocide: Indonesian Rule in West Papua’, Griffith Journal of Law and Human Dignity 2:1.
17 Jakarta, Indonesia's capital, is separated from Jayapura, West Papua's largest city, by 3785 kilometres, from PNG's capital, Port Moresby, by 4,449 kilometres, from Vanuatu's capital, Port Vila, by 6,777 kilometres, from Solomon Islands capital, Honiara, by 5,852 kilometres, from New Caledonia's capital, Noumea, by 6,621 kilometres, and from Fijji's capital, Suva, by 7,847 kilometres.
18 See for example Danilyn Rutherford, 2003. Raiding the Land of the Foreigners: The Limits of a Nation on an Indonesian Frontier, Princeton University Press, Princeton; and Richard Chauvel, Constructing Papuan Nationalism: History, Ethnicity and Adaptation, Policy Series 14, East West Center Washington, Washington D. C., pp. 41-47. John Conroy, on the other hand, writes that the contiguity between the Melanesian and Asian regions contributes to making the “contrasts between them more piquant” (2013. ‘The Informal Economy in Monsoon Asia and Melanesia: West New Guinea and the Malay World’, Crawford School Working Paper, The Australian National University, Canberra, pg. 6).
19 See David Webster, 2001-2. ‘Already Sovereign As A People: A Foundational Moment in West Papuan Nationalism’, Pacific Affairs, 74:4, pp. 507-528.
20 See Roger Keesing and Robert Tokinson (eds), 1992. ‘Reinventing Traditional Culture: The Politics of Culture in Island Melanesia’, Special Issue, Mankind 13:4; one example of invented national tradition in West Papua is the Yospan dance, made up of dance steps from Biak and an area near Jayapura—see Rutherford, 2003, pp. 99-105.
21 See for example Ronald May on Melanesian ‘political style’: 2004. ‘Political Style in Modern Melanesia’ in State and Society in Papua New Guinea: The First Twenty-Five Years, ANU E-Press, Canberra; and Clive Moore on Melanesian wantokism, or the preferential treatment of those with whom you identify most according to common language, or in a wider conception, at nation-state or regional levels: 2008. ‘Pacific View: The Meaning of Politics and Governance in the Pacific Islands’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 62:3, p. 392.
22 Crocombe, 2007, p. 296.
23 Feminist Media Studio, ‘James Clifford On ‘Becoming’ Indigenous', Vimeo Interview.
24 Margaret Jolly, 2007. ‘Imagining Oceania: Indigenous and Foreign Representations of a Sea of Islands’, The Contemporary Pacific 19:2 p. 521.
25 Interview with Selwyn Garu, Port Vila, Vanuatu, July 20, 2009
26 Lawson, 2013, p. 22.
27 Ibid, p. 22.
28 Indonesia derives much of its revenue from the largely United States-owned gold and copper mine Freeport McMoRan operating in West Papua, depends on West Papua for relieving overpopulation on Indonesian islands, uses West Papua as roaming ground for its defense force, and takes national pride in its ‘territorial integrity‘—West Papua inclusive.
29 Fiji has historically tended to identify with a “Pacific Way” which favours Polynesian cultural identifiers. Fiji did not join the Melanesian Spearhead Group until 1996, 10 years after the Group's formation, when its regional identification began to shift (see Lawson, 2013, p. 19).
30 See Epeli Hau'ofa, 2008. We Are the Ocean: Selected Works, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu; Jean-Marie Tjiabou, 1996. Kanaky, Pandanus Books, Canberra; Bernard Narokobi, 1983. The Melanesian Way, University of the South Pacific, Suva; and Jolly, 2008.
31 Ronald May, 2004. State and Society in Papua New Guinea: The First Twenty-Five Years.
32 See Lawson 2013, p. 2 and p. 21.
33 Ibid, p. 14.
34 See Tracy McFarlane, 2010. ‘Experiencing Difference, Seeking Community: Racial, Panethnic, and National Identities among Female Caribbean-Born US College Students’, American Review of Political Economy 8:2, p. 101.
35 See Narokobi, 1983.
36 See Lawson, 2013, p. 17.
37 Ibid, p. 15.
38 See Narokobi, 1983, pp. 49-57; and Lawson, 2013, p. 12.
39 Crocombe, 2007, p. 301.
40 Kirsten McGavin, 2014. ‘Being ‘Nesian’: Pacific Islander Identity in Australia', The Contemporary Pacific 26:1, p. 126.
41 MacFarlane, 2010, p. 101.
42 For example, HIV infection rates in the province are 40 times the Indonesian national average (see S. Rees and D. Silove, 2007. ‘Speaking Out About Human Rights and Health in West Papua’, The Lancet 370(9588) pp. 637-639; for another example, indigenous West Papuans have an infant mortality rate of 18.4 per cent, whilst the infant mortality rate among the non-indigenous population in West Papua is 3.6 per cent—see Stella Peters and Wouter Bronsgeets, 2012. ‘Extremely High Infant Mortality in West Papua Result of Discrimination’ Press Statement from 12 November 2012.
43 Public Institute of Pacific Policy, 2008. ‘MSG: Trading on Political Capital and Melanesian Solidarity’, Briefing Paper 2.
44 The FLNKS is the only member of the MSG that is not a state, but an indigenous political organization.
45 Radio New Zealand International, June 6, 2013. ‘FLNKS Formally Invites West Papua to Attend MSG Meeting’, Islands Business.
46 See Jennifer Robinson, March 21, 2012. ‘The UN's Chequered Record in West Papua’, Al Jazeera.
47 West Papua National Coalition for Liberation, June 2014. ‘MSG Update’, Morning Star Newsletter 6:1.
48 However, as Jason MacLeod notes, when the President of the Federal Republic of West Papua, the incarcerated Forkorus Yaboisembut, heard of the WPNCL's application, he wrote to the Director General of the MSG withdrawing his government's application and offered support for the WPNCL (see Jason MacLeod, July 1, 2013. ‘A Win For West Papua In Melanesia’, New Matilda).
49 Australian Association for Pacific Studies, April 24, 2014. 'Q&A with Ralph Regenvanu, Session on West Papuan Activism. The University of Sydney. Similar issues plagued the East Timorese independence political party, FRETILIN (and various of the other East Timorese resistance groups), from the 1970s to the 1990s, due to continued ambushes by the Indonesian military, ideological differences, and personal leadership feuds (Charles Call, 12. Why Peace Fails: The Causes and Prevention of Civil War Recurrence, Georgetown University Press, Washington D.C., pp. 137-138.
50 MacLeod writes that Indonesia was sufficiently worried about MSG support for West Papua that for the first time ever it invited five governments to observe Papua/West Papua (see Jason MacLeod, July 1, 2013. ‘A Win For West Papua In Melanesia’, New Matilda).
51 Solomon Star News, August 15, 2013. “Lilo Lured by Indonesian President”, Solomon Star News.
52 Winston Tarere, February 27, 2014. ‘Vurobaravu better placed to deal with West Papua at the MSG’, Daily Post.
53 Kiery Manassah, February 2014. ‘The MSG Knows It Has Unfinished Business Regarding West Papua’, Public Institute of Pacific Policy.
54 Johnny Blades, July 23, 2013. 'One Voice: West Papua's Demand for Greater Independence Has Not Gone Unheard By Other Melanesian States“, The Guardian.
55 Rowan Callick, February 15, 2014. ‘Julie Bishop Move to Bring Fiji in From Cold’, The Australian.
56 Islands Business, February 2014. ‘MSG Cohesion in Doubt?‘ Islands Business.
57 Arto Suryodipuro, January 25, 2014. ‘Building Relations with Pacific Island Countries’, The Jakarta Post.
58 Ina Parlina, June 20, 2014. ‘RI to Boost Ties with Pacific Island Countries’, The Jakarta Post.
59 Winston Tarere, May 2, 2014. ‘Indonesia Exercises Cheque-Book Diplomacy Ahead of UN Decolonization Conference’, Daily Post.
60 Ibid.
61 Tabloid Jubi, March 3, 3014. ‘Indonesia Accused of Meddling in Fiji Affairs’, Tabloid Jubi.
62 Islands Business, March 4, 2014. ‘Fijian Ties Move, Indonesians with Papuans Fly In’, Islands Business.
63 Shalveen Chand, February 10, 2014. ‘Fiji's Tavola Defends MSG Meeting in Indonesia, Ambassador Says It Was Opportunity to 'Seek Bilateral Agreements’, Pacific Islands Reports.
64 Seru Serevi in interview with Bruce Hill, March 3, 2014. ‘Fiji Musician Seru Serevi Releases West Papua Song’, Pacific Beat, ABC Radio Australia.
65 Tabloid Jubi, March 3, 2014.
66 Winston Tarere, February 27, 2014. ‘Vurobaravu Better Placed to Deal with West Papua at the MSG’, Daily Post.
67 Johnny Blades, July 23, 2013. ‘One Voice: West Papua's Demand for Greater Independence Has Not Gone Unheard By Other Melanesian States’, The Guardian.
68 Nic Maclellan, June 22, 2013. ‘Somare Says MSG Must Serve the Region: West Papua Roadmap Approved’, Pacific Scoop.
69 Makereta Komai, June 20, 2013. ‘Sir Michael Somare Exhorts MSG To Include West Papua In Its Activities’, PACNEWS.
70 Islands Business, June 19, 2013. ‘West Papua Part of Indonesia: PNG PM’, Islands Business.
71 Ina Parlina and Margareth S. Aritonang, January 17, 2014. ‘Melanesians Respect RI's Sovereignty’, The Jakarta Post.
72 Bagus Bt Saragih and Margareth S. Aritonang, January 14, 2014. ‘After Observing Papua, MSG Ministers to Meet SBY’, The Jakarta Post.
73 PNG Industry News.net, March 10, 2014. ‘Innocent Occupation’, PNGINndustryNews.net.
74 Catherine Wilson, December 29, 2013. ‘West Papua Searches Far for Rights’, InterPress Service.
76 Jason MacLeod, July 1, 2013. ‘A Win For West Papua In Melanesia’, New Matilda.
77 Solomon Star News, August 15, 2013. ‘Lilo Lured by Indonesian President’, Solomon Star News (link no longer live).
78 Solomon Star News, June 19, 2013. ‘PM to Introduce New Concept Paper to MSG’ Solomon Star News (link no longer live)
79 West Papua National Coalition for Liberation, June 26, 2013. ‘Statement Regarding the MSG Decision on West Papua’, Pacific Scoop.
80 Blades, July 23, 2013. The Guardian.
81 Radio New Zealand International, August 29, 2013. ‘Solomons Prime Minister Says Indonesia Will Meet All Trip Costs’, RNZI.
82 Ini Parlina, August 13, 2013. ‘Indonesia, Solomon Islands Leaders Talk About Papua’, The Jakarta Post.
83 Solomon Star News, August 15, 2013. ‘Lilo Lured by Indonesian President’, Solomon Star News (link no longer live).
84 Islands Business, June 24, 2013. ‘FSII Condemns Solomon Islands PM's Declaration On West Papua’, Islands Business.
85 Nic Maclellan, June 18, 2013. ‘MSG to Send Mission to Jakarta and West Papua’, Island Business.
86 Makereta Komai, June 18, 2014. ‘West Papua Decision Deferred’, PACNEWS.
87 Radio New Zealand International, January 22, 2014. ‘Umbrella Papuan Group Suggested To Apply For MSG’, Pacific Islands Report.
88 Interview with John Otto Ondawame, Port Vila, Vanutau, April 12, 2013.
89 Bobakin, March 21, 2013. ‘Vanuatu PM Kilman Resigns’, Vanuatu Daily.
90 Interview with John Otto Ondawame, Port Vila, Vanutau, April 12, 2013.
91 UN News Centre, September 28, 2013. ‘Vanuatu Urges Inclusive Development, Pledges to Continue Speaking Out Against Colonialism’, UN News Centre.
92 Pacific Media Centre, March 2, 2014. ‘Vanuatu PM Blasts Indonesian Human Rights Violations in West Papua’, Pacific Media Centre.
93 Tabloid Jubi, March 6, 2014. ‘Indonesia Strongly Rejects the Statement of Prime Minister of Vanuatu’, Tabloid Jubi, link no longer live.
94 Ibid.
95 Ibid.
96 Australian Network News, August 8, 2013. ‘Inaugural Meeting of the Pacific Island Development Forum Ends with Allegations of Sabotage’, Australian Network News.
97 Winston Tarere, May 2, 2014. ‘Indonesia Exercises Cheque-Book Diplomacy Ahead of UN Decolonization Conference’, Daily Post.
98 Radio New Zealand International, June 19, 2014. ‘Indonesia to Strengthen Ties with Fiji's PIDF’, Radio New Zealand International.
99 Neatni Rika, June 19, 2014, ‘All Aboard the Gravy Train as SBY Visits Fiji’, Crikey.com.
100 Tevita Vuibau, June 20, 2014. ‘Plea for West Papua’, The Fiji Times Online.
101 Tevita Vuibau, June 23, 2014. ‘Plea for West Papua’, The Fiji Times Online.
102 Radio New Zealand International, June 19, 2014. 'Indonesia to Co-lead Fiji Observer Force, Radio New Zealand International.
103 Special MSG Leaders' Summit, 26 June 2014. ‘Communique’, National Parliament, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.
104 Radio New Zealand International, July 2, 2014. ‘Jakarta/West Papua Talks Urged’, Radio New Zealand International.
105 Tabloid Jubi, July 2, 2014. ‘The Government of Vanuatu Will Continue Raising the Issue of West Papua to the UN’, Tabloid Jubi, link no longer live.
106 Papuans believe MSG will support new application, Vanuatu Daily Post, July 8, 2014.
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