¹ See, for example, Okinawa Club of America, ed., History of the Okinawans in North America, trans. Ben Kobashigawa (Los Angeles: Asian American Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); Ethnic Studies Oral History Project, Uchinanchu: A History of Okinawans in Hawai'i (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984); and Imin-shi hankō iinkai, Burajiru Okinawa kenjin imin-shi (History of Okinawan Immigrants in Brazil) (Sāo Paulo: Burajiru Okinawa Kenjin-kai, 2000). In 1940, the numbers and distribution of Okinawans overseas were estimated as follows: South Pacific, 56,400; Hawai'i, 27,000; Brazil, 23,000; Peru, 14,000; Argentina, 13,000; United States, 9,000; China, 9,000; Canada, 3,000. Figures in Arasaki Moriteru, ed., Okinawa no sugao: Profile of Okinawa (bilingual) (Tokyo: Techno Marketing Center, 2000), 68-69.

² A 2008 PBS documentary, “The Jewish Americans,” showed signs that read “Gentiles Only,” “Christian Only,” and “No Jews, Dogs, or Consumptives.” In a lecture on October 22, 2010, at Brown University, Professor Alexandra Filindra showed Help Wanted advertisements in newspapers from the early twentieth century specifying “No Irish” and “No Italians.”

³ Fukuchi Hiroaki, ed., Okinawa jokō aishi (The tragic history of Okinawa's women factory workers), (Naha: Naha Shuppan-sha, 1985), 76.

⁴ From an interview quoted in Mizuuchi Toshio, Osaka, Okinawa, Ajia (Osaka Okinawa, Asia) Osaka: Osaka Shiritsu Daigaku, 1999), 38-42.

⁵ Prefectural police departments compiled figures from family registers (koseki). According to official records, another 55,706 emigrated abroad between 1899 and 1932, mostly to Hawaii and South America.

⁶ Okinawa Kenjin-kai Hyōgo-ken Honbu, Shima o deta tami no sensō taiken-shū (War experiences of the people who left the islands) (Amagasaki: Okinawa Kenjin-kai Hyōgo-ken Honbu, 1995), 57.

⁷ Ibid., 187-188.

⁸ Figures for the three prefectures are cited in Okinawa Ken-jin Kai Hyōgo-ken Honbu, comp., “Anketo shōkei ichi-ran hyō” (Chart of aggregate survey totals) (2000). Estimate of total mainland population was given by panelists from the University of the Ryukyus at a symposium on diaspora at the Okinawa Studies Conference held in March 2009 at the University of Hawaii.

⁹ Kaneshiro Munekazu, “Esunikku gurupu to shite no ‘Okinawa-jin’” (“Okinawans” as an ethnic group), Ningen kagaku 37 (1992).

¹⁰ Cited in Milton and Yinger, Ethnicity: Source of Strength, Source of Conflict (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), 21.

¹¹ Nakama Keiko, “1920, 1930 nendai ni okeru zai-Han Okinawa-jin no seikatsu ishiki (Lifestyles among Okinawan residents of Osaka in the 1920s and 193 0s), Ōsaka Jinken Hakubutsu-kan kiyo (Bulletin of the Osaka Human Rights Museum) 3 (1999), 61.

¹² Arashiro Toshiaki, Ryūkyū, Okinawa-shi (Naha: Okinawa Rekishi Kyōiku Kenkyŭ-kai, 1997), 188.

¹³ Ryūkyū shimpō, April 7, 1903.

¹⁴ Terrance E. Cook, Separation, Assimilation, or Accommodation: Contrasting Ethnic Minority Policies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 100.

¹⁵ Quoted in Richard Siddle, “Ainu: Japan's Indigenous People,” in Michael Weiner, ed., Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity (New York: Routledge, 1997), 40, 43.

¹⁶ Andrew Gordon, conclusion to Andrew Gordon, ed., Postwar Japan as History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 461.

¹⁷ Millie Creighton, “Soto and uchi ‘Others’: Imaging Diversity,” in Weiner, Japan's Minorities, 213-214.

¹⁸ Quoted in “Osaka no Okinawa,” Mainichi shimbun, March 19, 1987, 24.

¹⁹ Tomiyama Ichirō, “On Becoming ‘a Japanese’: The Community of Oblivion and Memories of the Battlefield.” This article, originally published in Yoseba 6 (March 1993), was adapted and expanded in “Senjō no kioku” (Memories of the battlefield) (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Hyōron-sha, 1995). It was translated by Noah McCormack and posted at Japan Focus on October 26, 2005: here. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1991), 1-7.

²⁰ Tomiyama Ichirō, Kindai Nihon shakai to “Okinawa-jin” “Nihon-jin” ni naru to iu koto (Tokyo: Nihon Keizai Hyōron-sha, 1990).

²¹ Tomiyama, “On Becoming ‘a Japanese.’“

²² Oyakawa Takayoshi, Ashiato: Oyakawa Takayoshi no kaisōroku (Footprints: Recollections of Oyakawa Takayoshi) (Osaka: Matsuei Insatsu, 1995), 22. Adapted from translation in “Memories of Okinawa: Life in the Greater Osaka Diaspora,” in Laura Hein and Mark Selden, eds, Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003), 117.

²³ Kinjō Isamu, “Okinawa izu namba wan,” in Ota Jun'ichi, Osaka no Uchinaanchu (The Okinawans of Osaka) (Osaka: Burein Sentaa, 1996), 89. Adapted from translation in Steve Rabson, “Life on the Mainland: As Portrayed in Modern Okinawan Literature,” in Chalmers Johnson, ed., Okinawa: Cold War Island (Cardiff, CA: Japan Policy Research Institute, 1999), 89.

²⁴ John Lie, Multiethnic Japan (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 95.

²⁵ Tamaki Natsuko, “Nihonjin de aru koto, Okinawa-jin de aru koto,” Ryūkyū shimpō, May 27, 2000, 11.