1 Duffy,, Eamon ‘The parish, piety, and patronage in late medieval East Anglia: the evidence of rood screens’, in The Parish in English Life 1400-1600, ed. French,, Katherine Gibbs, Gary and Kumin, Beat (Manchester, 1997), pp. 132–62.Google Scholar The history of roods has not been satisfactorily discussed in the existing literature, as they are almost always discussed as adjuncts to screens. For instance, Francis Bond, Screens and Galleries in English Churches (London, 1908); Francis Bligh Bond and Dom Bede Camm, Roodscreens and Rood Lofts (London, 1909); Aymer Vallance, English Church Screens: being Great Roods, Screenwork and Rood- lofts of Parish Churches in England and Wales (London, 1936), pp. 1-12. Richard Marks, Image and Devotion in Late Medieval England (Stroud, 2004) does not discuss roods, arguing that they needed an entire book of their own (p. 10).

2 For instance, Peters,, Christine Patterns of Piety: Women, Gender, and Religion in Late Medieval and Reformation England (Cambridge, 2003); French,, Katherine The People of the Parish: Community Life in a Late Medieval English Diocese (Philadelphia, 2001); Kumin,, Beat The Shaping of a Community: The Rise and Reformation of the English Parish c. 1400-1560 (Aldershot, 1995); Duffy,, Eamon The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400-1580 (New Haven, 1992).Google Scholar

3 John, A. A. Goodall, God’s House at Ewelme: Architecture in a Fifteenth-Century Almshouse (Aldershot, 2001); Marks, Image and Devotion.Google Scholar

4 Drew,, Charles Early Parochial Organisation in England: The Origins of the Office of Churchwarden, St Anthony’s Hall Publications VII (London, 1954);Google Scholar Mason,, Emma ‘The role of the English parishioner’, journal of Ecclesiastical History, 27 (1976), pp. 17–29.Google Scholar The earliest statutes to make this clearly explicit are those of Salisbury of 1217-19: Councils and Synods with Other Documents Relating to the History of the English Church, ed. F. M. Powicke and C. R. Cheney, 11, a.d. 1205-1313 (Oxford, 1964), p. 82.

5 Mary, Harold and Taylor,, Joan ‘Architectural sculpture in pre-Norman England’, The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 3rd series, 29 (1962), pp. 3–51 Google Scholar; Coatsworth,, Elizabeth ‘Late pre-Conquest sculpture with the crucifixion south of the Humber’, in Bishop Aeihelwold: his Career and Influence, ed. Barbara Yorke (Woodbridge, 1988), pp. 161–93 (pp. 164–66)Google Scholar; Raw,, Barbara Anglo-Saxon Crucifixion Iconography and the Art of the Monastic Revival (Cambridge, 1990)Google Scholar; Gittos,, Helen ‘Sacred space in Anglo-Saxon England’ (unpublished D.Phil. thesis, University of Oxford, 2001), pp. 183–90.Google Scholar

6 Coatsworth,, ‘Late pre-Conquest’, pp. 167–69 (Romsey)Google Scholar; Mary, Harold and Taylor,, Joan Anglo-Saxon Architecture, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1965), pp. 521–22 (Sherborne), p. 372 (Langford), pp. 628–39 (Walkern).?Google Scholar

7 Taylor and Taylor, ibid., p. 64 (Bibury), pp. 74-76 (Bitton), p. 87 (Bradford-on-Avon), p. 290 (Headbourne Worthy); Warwick J. Rodwell and Clive E. Rouse, ‘The Anglo-Saxon rood and other features in the south porch of St Mary’s church, Breamore, Hampshire’, Antiquaries Journal, 64 (1984), pp. 298-323 (pp. 315-17).

8 Barnwell,, P. S. ‘The Laity, the Clergy and the Divine Presence: the Use of Space in Smaller Churches of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries’, The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 157 (2004), pp. 41–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9 Rodwell,, Warwick J. ‘Anglo-Saxon painted sculpture at Wells, Breamore and Barton-upon-Humber’, in Early Medieval Wall Painting and Painted Sculpture in England, ed. Sharon Cather, David Park and Paul Williamson, British Archaeological Report, British Series, 216 (1990), pp. 161–76 (pp. 165–66); Pamela Tudor- Craig, ‘Nether Wallop reconsidered’, in ibid., pp. 89-104.Google Scholar

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11 Lehmann-Brockhaus,, Otto Lateinishche Schiftquellen zur Kunst in England, Wales und Schottland vom Jahre 901 bis zum Jahre 1307 (Munich, 1956) (hereafter L-B), pp. 5952, 3454: magnam crucem que super altare est mirabili opere de argento et auro.Google Scholar

12 Ibid., pp. 469-71, 4479-80. This image, which was carved of black stone, was apparently miraculously discovered on the banks of the Thames, and one cannot help but wonder if it was a piece of Roman spolia.

13 Ibid., p. 326. Super ostium etiam chori pulpitum ... et ex utraque part pulpiti arcus, et in medio supra pulpitum arcum eminentiorem crucem in summitate gestantem ... opere Theutonico fabrefactos erexit.

14 The Monastic Constitutions ofLanfranc, ed. and trans. Dorn David Knowles, rev. C. N. L. Brooke (Oxford, 2002), pp. xxviii, 24, 28, 36-40, 62, 70, 78, 86-88, 96-98, 106.

15 Translation in Willis,, Robert The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral (Cambridge, 1845), p. 37.Google Scholar It is not clear if this pulpitum belonged to Lanfranc’s choir of the 1070s or to the choir as rebuilt by Archbishop Anselm at the end of the eleventh century. It is likely, however, that it was made of timber as it had to be replaced before the monks could enter their new choir in 1180 following the fire in 1174.

16 Hope,, William St J. ‘Quire screens in English churches, with special reference to the quire screen formerly in the cathedral church of Ely’, Archaeologia, 68 (1916-17), pp. 42–110 (p. 88); Raw, Crucifixion Iconography, p. 48.Google Scholar

17 L-B, p. 501 (c. 1148-56): Crucem in choro et Mariam et Iohannem per manus magistri Hugonis incomparabiliter fecti insculpi; ibid., p. 506 (c. 1173-80): crux que erat super magnum altare, et Mariola et Iohannes, quas ymagines Stigandus archepiscopus magno pondereauri et argenti ornaverat et s. Aedmundo dederat.

18 Klukas,, Arnold ‘The continuity of Anglo-Saxon liturgical tradition in post-Conquest England as evident in the architecture of Winchester, Ely, and Canterbury cathedrals’, in Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Les mutations socio-culturelles au tournant des xi^l‘-xii‘ siècles (Paris, 1984), pp. 111–23 Google Scholar, !9²~94; Carol Davidson Cragoe, ‘Fabric, tombs and precinct 1087-1540’, in St Paul’s: the Cathedral Church of London 604-2004, ed. Derek Keene, Arthur Burns and Andrew Saint (New York and London, 2004), pp. 127-42.

19 Blair,, John Church and Society in Anglo-Saxon England (Oxford, 2005) is the most recent work on this subject, but see also Richard Morris, Churches in the Landscape (London, 1989), pp. 93–167.Google Scholar

20 Rosser,, Gervase ‘The Anglo-Saxon gilds’, in Minsters and Parish Churches, ed. John Blair (Oxford, 1988), pp. 31–34 Google Scholar; John Blair, ‘Clerical communities and parochial space: the planning of urban mother churches in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries’, in The Church in the Medieval Town, ed. T. R. Slater and Gervase Rosser (Aldershot, 1998), pp. 272-94.

21 Vallance, English Church Screens, p. 38. A. P. Baggs in The Victoria County History of Sussex, ed. T. P. Hudson, vol. 6, pt 2 (London, 1980), p. 170 calls this a sixteenth- or seventeenth-century roof tie-beam.

22 Blindheim,, Martin Painted Wooden Sculpture in Norway c. 1100-1230 (Oslo, 1998)Google Scholar; Aron Anderrson, L’art Scandinave, 11 (Yonne, 1968).

23 Rickersby, S. and Park,, David ‘A Romanesque "Visitatio Sepulchri" at Kempley’, Burlington Magazine, 133, no. 1054, pp. 27–31 (p. 30); Deborah Kahn, ‘The Romanesque sculpture of the church of St Mary at Halford, Warwickshire’, The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 133 (1980), pp. 64–73.Google Scholar

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25 Tristram,, E. W. English Medieval Wall Painting. The Twelfth Century (London, 1944), p. 115.Google Scholar

26 Park,, David ‘The "Lewes Group" of Wall Paintings’, Anglo Norman Studies, 3 (1983), pp. 200–35.?Google Scholar

27 Campion,, C. H. ‘Mural paintings in Westmeston church’, Sussex Archaeological Collections, xvi (1864), pp. 1–19.Google Scholar

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29 Paris, Musée de Cluny, CL 11.459; Brussels, Cathedral of S Michel; The Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon Art 966-1066, ed. Janet Backhouse, D. H. Turner and Leslie Webster (London, c. 1984), pp. 91-92.

30 Gotfredsen,, Lise Ràsted Kirche: Spil og Billede (Arhus, 1975).Google Scholar

31 The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. F. L. Cross, 3rd edn, ed. E. A. Livingstone (Oxford, 1997), P- 43432 London, British Library, MS Stowe 944, fol. 6r.

33 Monastic Constitutions, pp. 78-79.

34 Raw, Crucifixion Iconography, pp. 40-41.

35 L-B, p. 5952.

36 For instance: Lothar Cross, c. 985-91, Aachen, Palace Chapel, Treasury; cross of Abbess Mathilde (973-ion), Essen Minster, Treasury; cross of Queen Gisela, c. 1006, Munich, Residenz, Treasury. Collum Hourihane, The Processional Cross in Late Medieval England: The ‘Dallye Cross’, Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London, 71 (London, 2005) discusses the history of processional crosses.

37 Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Z.11503, c. 1080; idem., Z.11502 of c. 1130-40; idem., Z.11501 and 1905.66, both second quarter twelfth century; London, Museum of London, 4980, c. 1120-30.

38 Copenhagen, Danish National Museum, D.894.

39 English Romanesque Art 1066-1200, ed. George Zarnecki, Janet Holt and Tristram Holland (London 1984), pp. 246-47.

40 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cloisters Collection, no. 63/12, and Oslo, Museum of Applied Art, no. 10314. The cross is sometimes dated to c. 1180, but an earlier dating is convincingly argued by Peter Lasko, Ars Sacra 800-1200, 2nd edn (New Haven, 1994), pp. 151-52. The link between the two objects was made by Martin Blindheim, ‘Scandinavian Art and its relations to European art around 1200’, in The Year 1200: a Symposium, The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, 1975), pp. 429-67 (pp. 434-35).

41 English Romanesque Art, p. 245.

42 Royal Commission for Historic Monuments (of England), Churches of South-East Wiltshire (London, 1987), pp. 43-44, pis 11 & 37; E. W. Tristram, English Medieval Wall-Painting. 1, Text: the 15th Century (Oxford, 1950), p. 625.

43 English Romanesque Art, p. 247; London, British Museum, MLA, 1968, 7-7, 1.

44 English Romanesque Art, pp. 242-43.

45 Anderrson, L'art Scandinave, pp. 343-44.

46 Ibid., pp. 336-40. Charles Tracy and Paul Woodfield, ‘The "Adisham Reredos". What is it?’, The Journal of the British Archaeological Association, 156 (2003), pp. 27-78 (pp. 50-56 and fig. 26).

47 Marks, Image and Devotion, p. 47.

48 Tristram, Twelfth Century, pp. 128-36, 142-43, 149-52; Clive Rouse and Audrey Baker, ‘The early wall paintings in Coombes church, Sussex and their iconography’, Archaeological Journal, 136 (1979), pp. 218-28.

49 Vallance, English Church Screens, p. 19.

50 It is possible that this cross once had a figure, but its square shape with roughly equal arms, which is reminiscent of the empty cross in the Winchester Liber Vitae, militates against this.

51 Tristram, Twelfth Century, pp. 113-15.

52 Ibid., pp. 147-48.

53 Keyser,, C. E. ‘Mural paintings of the Doom at Patcham Church, Sussex’, The Archaeological Journal, 38 (1881), pp. 80–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

54 Tristram, Thirteenth Century, pp. 501-03.

55 Tristram, Twelfth Century, p. 133.

56 Rickersby and Park, ‘Visitatio Sepulchri’, p. 31.

57 Regularis Concordia: The Monastic Agreement, ed. T. Symons (Oxford, 1953), pp. 47-48; Harold Mary Taylor, Anglo-Saxon Architecture, 111 (Oxford, 1978), p. 1065; G. Baldwin Brown, The Arts in Early England: Anglo-Saxon Architecture (London, 1925), p. 329.?

58 Rodwell, Warwick J. and Rodwell,, Kirsty A. ‘St Peter’s church, Barton-on-Humber: excavation and structural study, 1978-81’, Journal of the Society of Antiquaries, 62 (1982), pp. 283–315 (fig. 6)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Martin Biddle, ‘Excavations in Winchester 1966: fifth interim report’, Journal of the Society of Antiquaries, 47 (1967), pp. 262-63.

59 For a discussion of the use of western spaces, including the bases of west towers, as baptisteries in eleventh- and twelfth-century England, see Davidson,, C. F. ‘Architecture, Liturgy and the Laity in English Parish Churches c. 1125-C.1250’ (unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1998), pp. 261–63.Google Scholar

60 Tristram, Twelfth Century, p. 124.

61 Vallance, English Church Screens, p. 2. An early date is sometimes suggested for the rood stairs at Thurlby (Lincolnshire) on the basis of an early English shaft near the top of the rood stair; this shaft, however, was reset in its present position at a later date.

62 ‘Aliud vero altare sub cruce ad austrum in honore beate Marie ... alterum vero altare ad boream in honore sacnte virginis Milburge.’ Registrum Caroli Bothe, Episcopi Herefordensis A.D. MDXVI-MDXXXV, ed. A. T. Bannister, Canterbury and York Society, 28 (1921), p. 199.

63 ‘Parochiani... debent invenire ... crucifixum, cruces, et ymagines.’ Councils and Synods II, pp. 512-13.

64 Ibid., pp. 379, 1385.

65 ‘Visitations of some churches belonging to St Paul’s Cathedral, 1249-52’, ed. W. S. Simpson, Camden Miscellany 9, Camden Society, 53 (1895), pp. iii-38; ibid., Visitations of Churches Belonging to St Paul’s Cathedral in 1297 and in 1438, Camden Society, 55 (1895).

66 Simpson, 1249-32, pp. 26-27.

67 ‘Crux stagnea et depicta super majus altare, et alia parva et portailis ad efferendum.’ Ibid., p. 17.

68 Unica crux est ibi in maiori altari nec altera ad efferendum. Ibid., pp. 20-21. Efferendum is probably a misspelling of offerendum, suggesting that the visitors were criticizing the lack of a processional cross.

69 Crux una super altare lignea depicta. Ibid., pp. 4-5.

70 Una crux admallo et alia lignea depicta ... item lintheamen retro crucem. Ibid., p. 9.

71 Unum lintheamen ante crucem. Ibid., p. 11.

72 Velum ad cooperiendum crucem in ecclesia de canopo. Ibid., p. 2.

73 Crux magna cum ymaginibus super trabem iuxta cancellum de beata Virgine et b. Iohanne Ewangelista. Simpson, 1297, p. 59.

74 Ymaginibus Sancte Crucis. Ibid., p. 36.

75 Ibid., p. 45.

76 Ibid., p. 61.

77 Ibid., pp. 54, 57.

78 Ibid., pp. 12,17, 20, 24, 27.

79 ‘In medio navis ymago crucifixi pingenda, cuis pictura de formata per cadenciam pluie de negligencia parochianorum, cum ymaginibus beate Virginis et Sanct Johannis a diuerso latere.’ Ibid., p. 43.

80 Ibid., pp. 1-6, 52-53.

81 Ibid., p. 49.

82 Ibid., p. 50.

83 Ibid., p. 10.

84 Ibid., p. 63.

85 ‘Operimentum decens et honestum inter altare et summitatem chori.’ Councils and Synods II, p. 171.

86 Vallance,, English Church Screens, pp. 34–36.Google Scholar

87 Cautley,, H. M. Suffolk Churches and Their Treasures, 5th edn with supplement (Ipswich, 1982), pp. 362–63.Google Scholar

88 Rodwell,, W. J. Rivenhall: Investigation of a Villa, Church, and Village, 1950-1977, Council for British Archaeology Research Report, 55 (1985), pp. 142–44.Google Scholar

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92 Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, ed. N. P. Tanner, 2 vols (London, 1990), Lateran IV, c.i.Google Scholar

93 Goering,, Joseph ‘The invention of transubstantiation’, Traditio, 46 (1991), pp. 147–70.Google Scholar

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95 Brooke, C. N. L. and Brooke,, Rosalind Popular Religion in the Middle Ages: Western Europe 1000-1500 (London, 1984), pp. 115–16 Google Scholar; similar sentiments are found in many standard works on the English church, such as Martin Brett, The English Church Under Henry I (London, 1975), pp. 220-21, and more recently, inter alia, in Andrew Brown, Church and Society in England, 1000-1500 (Basingstoke, 2003), pp. 44-50. A more balanced view is expressed by Helen Gittos, ‘Is there any evidence for the liturgy of parish churches in late AngloSaxon England? The Red Book of Darley and the status of Old English’, in Pastoral Care in late Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Francesca Tinti (Woodbridge, forthcoming).

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98 Anglo-Saxon Wills, ed. Dorothy Whitelock (Cambridge, 1930).

99 Warner,, Peter ‘Shared churchyards, freeman church builders, and the development of parishes in eleventh-century East Anglia’, Landscape History, 8 (1986), pp. 36–52 Google Scholar; Blair, Church and Society, pp. 409-10.

100 Stenton,, F. M. Documents Illustrative of the Social and Economic History of the Danelaw (London, 1920), p. 342.Google Scholar

101 English Episcopal Acta II: Canterbury 1162-1190, ed. C. R. Cheney and B. Jones (Oxford, 1986), pp. 45-46.

102 Councils and Synods II, p. 128.

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105 Councils and Synods II: Winchester 1070, p. 576; Windsor 1070, p. 581; Westminster 1127, p. 748; Westminster 1138, p. 778; York 1195, p. 1050; Westminster 1200, pp. 1066-67; Canterbury 1213-14, p. 33; Salisbury 1217-19, p. 75.

106 English Historical Documents I, 500-1042, ed. Dorothy Whitelock (London, 1979), p. 464.

107 Stenton, Documents Illustrative, p. 342; ‘et per dispositionem capellani et duorum aut trium parrachianorum fidelium expendantur ad sacra texta, ad libros, ad vestimenta, sue ornamenta, que eidem capelle necessaria fuerint procuranda.’ English Episcopal Acta II, pp. 45-46).

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109 The Lay Folk’s Mass Book, ed. T. F. Simmons, Early English Text Society, 71 (London, 1879).

110 ‘Absens quidem corpore sed spiritu praesens et caritate, diligentiam vestram scripto praesenti instruere dignam duxi et offici debito non alienum, quatinus qualem erga vos dilecionis affectum habeam ex hoc perpendere, et quia curam vestri propter locorum distantias non abjecerim, intelligere valeatis.’ Giraldi Cambrensis Opera, ed. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 21, 8 vols (London, 1861-91), II, pp. xi, 5-6.1 am very grateful to William Campbell for bringing this passage to my attention.

111 Goering,, William de Montibus, p. 261, n. 2.Google Scholar

112 Park,, ‘Lewes group’, p. 209.Google Scholar

113 Register of St Osmund, ed. W. H. R. Jones, 2 vols, Rolls Series, 78 (London, 1883-84), 1, p. 304.

114 Orme,, Nicholas English Schools in the Middle Ages (London, 1973), p. 17.Google Scholar

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119 Bartlett,, Robert England under the Norman and Angevin Kings, (Oxford, 2000), pp. 451–54 Google Scholar; see also Greenfield,, Kathleen ‘Changing emphases in English vernacular homiletic literature, 960-1225’, Journal of Medieval History, 7.3 (1981), pp. 283–97 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Swan,, Mary ‘Aelfric’s Catholic Homilies in the twelfth century’, in Rewriting Old English in the Twelfth Century, ed. Mary Swan and Elaine M. Treharne (Cambridge, 2000), pp. 62–82 Google Scholar; and Jonathan Wilcox, ‘Wulfstan and the twelfth century’, in ibid., pp. 83-97, ^explore the continued use of these two well known Anglo-Saxon homilists in later years.?

120 Monastic Constitutions, pp. 60-61.

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122 Walter Map. De Nugis Curialium, ed. M. R. James, rev. C. N. L. Brooke and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford, 1983), p. 12.

123 The Victoria History of Huntingdonshire, ed. William Page, II (reprinted London, 1974), pp. 236-37.

124 Cheney,, C. R. ‘The so-called statutes of John Pecham and Robert Winchelsey for the province of Canterbury’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 12.1 (1961), pp. 14–34 discusses the development of ecclesiastical statutes through multiple councilsCrossRefGoogle Scholar; Clanchy,, Michael From Memory to Written Record: England 1066-1307 (Oxford, 1993) discusses the development of written record keeping in England more generally.Google Scholar