Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T01:42:45.226Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Nonword repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 September 2006

SUSAN E. GATHERCOLE
SUSAN E. GATHERCOLE
Affiliation:
University of York, UK
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article presents a theoretical framework designed to accommodate core evidence that the abilities to repeat nonwords and to learn the phonological forms of new words are closely linked. Basic findings relating nonword repetition and word learning both in typical samples of children and adults and in individuals with disorders of language learning are described. The theoretical analysis of this evidence is organized around the following claims: first, that nonword repetition and word learning both rely on phonological storage; second, that they are both multiply determined, constrained also by auditory, phonological, and speech–motor output processes; third, that a phonological storage deficit alone may not be sufficient to impair language learning to a substantial degree. It is concluded that word learning mediated by temporary phonological storage is a primitive learning mechanism that is particularly important in the early stages of acquiring a language, but remains available to support word learning across the life span.

Type
Keynote Article
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 27 , Issue 4 , October 2006 , pp. 513 - 543
Copyright
© 2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alloway T. P., Gathercole S. E., Willis C. S., & Adams A.-M. 2004. A structural analysis of working memory and related cognitive skills in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 85– 170.Google Scholar
Archibald L. M. D., & Gathercole S. E. (in press-a). Short-term and working memory in specific language impairment. International Journal of Communication Disorders.
Archibald L. M. D., & Gathercole S. E. (in press-b). Visuospatial immediate memory in specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research.
Archibald L. M. D., & Gathercole S. E. 2005a. Nonword repetition: A comparison of tests. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Archibald L. M. D., & Gathercole S. E. 2005b. What's so special about nonword repetition in specific language impairment? Manuscript submitted for publication.
Atkins P. W. B., & Baddeley A. D. 1998. Working memory and distributed vocabulary learning. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 537– 552.Google Scholar
Avons S. E., Wragg C. A., Cupples L., & Lovegrove W. J. 1998. Measure of phonological short-term memory and their relationship to vocabulary development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 583– 601.Google Scholar
Baddeley A. D. 1986. Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley A. D., Gathercole S. E., & Papagno C. 1998. The phonological loop as a language learning device. Psychological Review, 105, 158– 173.Google Scholar
Baddeley A. D., & Hitch G. 1974. Working memory. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47– 90). New York: Academic Press.
Baddeley A. D., Papagno C., & Vallar G. 1988. When long-term learning depends on short-term storage. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 576– 596.Google Scholar
Baddeley A. D., Thomson N., & Buchanan M. 1975. Word length and the structure of short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 575– 589.Google Scholar
Baddeley A. D., & Wilson B. A. 1993. A developmental deficit in short-term memory: Implications for language and reading. Memory, 1, 65– 78.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M. 2001. Genetic influences on language impairment and literacy problems in children: Same or different? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 189– 198.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M. (in press). Developmental cognitive genetics: How psychology can inform genetics and vice versa. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology.
Bishop D. V. M., Adams C. V., & Norbury C. F. 2004. Using nonword repetition to distinguish genetic and environmental influences on early literacy development: A study of 6-year-old twins. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 129B, 94– 96.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M., Bishop S. J., Bright P., Delaney T., & Tallal P. 1999. Different origin of auditory and phonological processing problems in children with language impairment: Evidence from a twin study. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 155– 168.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M., Carlyon R. P., Deeks J. M., & Bishop S. J. 1999. Auditory temporal processing impairment: Neither necessary nor sufficient for causing language impairment in children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1295– 1310.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M., & McArthur G. M. 2004. Immature cortical responses to auditory stimuli in specific language impairment: Evidence from ERPs to rapid tone sequences. Developmental Science, 7, F11– F18.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M., & McArthur G. M. 2005. Individual differences in auditory processing in specific language impairment: A follow-up study using event-related potentials and behavioural thresholds. Cortex, 41, 327– 341.Google Scholar
Bishop D. V. M., North T., & Donlan C. 1996. Nonword repetition as a behavioural marker for inherited language impairment: Evidence from a twin study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 391– 403.Google Scholar
Botting N., & Conti-Ramsden G. 2001. Non-word repetition and language development in children with specific language impairment (SLI). International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 36, 421– 432.Google Scholar
Bowey J. A. 1996. On the association between phonological memory and receptive vocabulary in five-year-olds. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 44– 78.Google Scholar
Bowey J. A. 1997. What does nonword repetition measure? A reply to Gathercole and Baddeley. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 67, 295– 301.Google Scholar
Bowey J. A. 2001. Nonword repetition and young children's receptive vocabulary: A longitudinal study. Applied Psycholinguistics, 22, 441– 469.Google Scholar
Brady S., Shankweiler D., & Mann V. 1983. Speech perception and memory coding in relation to reading ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 35, 345– 367.Google Scholar
Briscoe J., Bishop D. V. M., & Norbury C. F. 2001. Phonological processing, language, and literacy: A comparison of children with mild-to-moderate sensorineural hearing loss and those with specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 329– 340.Google Scholar
Brown G. D. A., & Hulme C. 1996. Nonword repetition, STM and word age of acquisition: A computation model. In S. Gathercole (Ed.), Models of short-term memory (pp. 129– 148). Hove: Psychology Press.
Butterworth B., Campbell R., & Howard D. 1986. The uses of short-term memory: A case study. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 705– 737.Google Scholar
Campbell T., Dollaghan C., Needleman H., & Janosky J. 1997. Reducing bias in language assessment: Processing-dependent measures. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 40, 519– 525.Google Scholar
Cheung H. 1996. Nonword span as a unique predictor of second-language vocabulary learning. Developmental Psychology, 32, 867– 873.Google Scholar
Chiat S. 2003. Mapping theories of developmental language impairment: Premises, predictions, and evidence. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 113– 142.Google Scholar
Chincotta D., & Hoosain R. 1995. Reading rate, articulatory suppression and bilingual digit span. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 7, 201– 211.Google Scholar
Conlin J. A., & Gathercole S. E. 2006. Lexicality and interference in working memory in children and adults. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Conti-Ramsden G., & Botting N. 2001. Psycholinguistic markers for specific language impairment (SLI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 741– 748.Google Scholar
Conti-Ramsden G., & Hesketh A. 2003. Risk markers for SLI: A study of young language-learning children. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 38, 251– 263.Google Scholar
Cowan N. 2001. The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87.Google Scholar
Cowan N., Day L., Saults J. S., Keller T. A., Johnson T., & Flores L. 1992. The role of verbal output time in the effects of word length on immediate memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 1– 17.Google Scholar
Da Costa Pinto A. 1991. Reading rates and digit span in bilinguals: The superiority of mother tongue. International Journal of Psychology, 26, 471– 483.Google Scholar
Daneman M., & Carpenter P. A. 1980. Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 19, 450– 466Google Scholar
de Jong P. F., Seveke M. J., & van Veen M. 2000. Phonological sensitivity and the acquisition of new words in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 76, 275– 301.Google Scholar
Dillon C. M., Cleary M., Pisoni D. B., & Carter A. K. 2004. Imitation of nonwords by hearing-impaired children with cochlear implants: Segmental analyses. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 18, 39– 55.Google Scholar
Dollaghan C., & Campbell T. F. 1998. Nonword repetition and child language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41, 1136– 1146.Google Scholar
Dollaghan C. A. 1987. Fast mapping in normal and language-impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 52, 218– 222.Google Scholar
Dollaghan C. A., Biber M., & Campbell T. 1993. Constituent syllable effects in a nonsense-word repetition task. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 1051– 1054.Google Scholar
Edwards J., Beckman M. E., & Munson B. 2004. The interaction between vocabulary size and phonotactic probability effects on children's production accuracy and fluency in nonword repetition. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 57, 421– 436.Google Scholar
Edwards J., & Lahey M. 1998. Nonword repetitions of children with specific language impairment: Exploration of some explanations for their inaccuracies. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 279– 309.Google Scholar
Ellis Weismer S., Evans J., & Hesketh L. 1999. An examination of working memory capacity in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 42, 1249– 1260.Google Scholar
Ellis Weismer S., & Hesketh L. 1996. Lexical learning by children with specific language impairment: Effects of linguistic input presented at varying speaking rates. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 177– 190.Google Scholar
Ellis Weismer S., Tomblin J. B., Zhang X., Buckwalter P., Chynoweth J. G., & Jones M. 2000. Nonword repetition performance in school-age children with and without language impairment, Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 865– 878.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E. 1995. Is nonword repetition a test of phonological memory or long-term knowledge? It all depends on the nonwords. Memory and Cognition, 23, 83– 94.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Alloway T. P., Willis C. S., & Adams A. M. (in press). Working memory in children with reading disabilities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology.
Gathercole S. E., & Baddeley A. D. 1989. Evaluation of the role of phonological STM in the development of vocabulary in children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 200– 213.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., & Baddeley A. D. 1990a. The role of phonological memory in vocabulary acquisition: A study of young children learning new names. British Journal of Psychology, 81, 439– 454.Google Scholar
Gathercole S., & Baddeley A. 1990b. Phonological memory deficits in language disordered children: Is there a causal connection? Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 336– 360.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., & Baddeley A. D. 1993. Working memory and language. Hove: Erlbaum.
Gathercole S. E., & Baddeley A. D. 1996. The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition. London: Psychological Corporation.
Gathercole S. E., & Baddeley A. D. 1997. Sense and sensitivity in phonological memory and vocabulary development: A reply to Bowey. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 67, 290– 294.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Baddeley A. D., Roulstone S., Maw R., Midgeley E., & The ALSPAC Study Team. 2005. Influences of chronic otitis media history and current hearing status on short-term memory, speech and language performance at five years of age. Manuscript in preparation.
Gathercole S. E., Frankish C., Pickering S. J., & Peaker S. 1999. Phonotactic influences on short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 84– 95.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., & Hitch G. 1993. The development of rehearsal: A revised working memory perspective. In A. Collins, S. Gathercole, M. Conway, & P. Morris (Eds.), Theories of memory. Hove: Erlbaum.
Gathercole S. E., Hitch G. J., Service E., & Martin A. J. 1997. Short-term memory and new word learning in children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 966– 979.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., & Martin A. J. 1996. Interactive processes in phonological memory. In S. E. Gathercole (Ed.), Models of short-term memory. Hove: Psychology Press.
Gathercole S. E., Pickering S. J., Hall M., & Peaker S. J. 2001. Dissociable lexical and phonological influences on serial recognition and serial recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A, 1– 30.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Tiffany C., Briscoe J., Thorn A. S. C., & The ALSPAC Team. 2005a. Developmental consequences of phonological loop deficits during early childhood: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 46, 598– 611.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Tiffany C., Briscoe J., Thorn A. S. C., & The ALSPAC Team. 2005b. Episodic long-term memory in children with poor phonological loop function. Manuscript in preparation.
Gathercole S. E., Willis C., & Baddeley A. D. 1991. Dissociable influences of phonological memory and phonological awareness on reading and vocabulary development. British Journal of Psychology, 82, 387– 406.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Willis C., Emslie H., & Baddeley A. D. 1991. The influences of number of syllables and wordlikeness on children's repetition of nonwords. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 349– 367.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Willis C., Emslie H., & Baddeley A. D. 1992. Phonological memory and vocabulary development during the early school years: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 28, 887– 898.Google Scholar
Gathercole S. E., Willis C., Emslie H., & Baddeley A. D. 1994. The Children's Test of Nonword Repetition: A test of phonological working memory. Memory, 2, 103– 127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gray S. 2003. Diagnostic accuracy and test–retest reliability of nonword repetition and digit span tasks administered to preschool children with specific language impairment. Journal of Communication Disorders, 36, 129– 151.Google Scholar
Gray S. 2004. Word learning by preschoolers with Specific Language impairment: Predictors and poor learners. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 1117– 1132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gupta P. 2003. Examining the relationship between word learning, nonword repetition, and immediate serial recall in adults. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56A, 1213– 1236.Google Scholar
Hayiou-Thomas M. E., Bishop D. V. M., & Plunkett K. 2004. Simulating SLI: General cognitive processing stressors can produce a specific linguistic profile. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 1347– 1362.Google Scholar
Heltzer J. R., Champlin C. A., & Gillam R. B. 1996. Auditory temporal resolution in specifically language-impaired and age-matched children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 3, 1171– 1181.Google Scholar
Hulme C., Maughan S., & Brown G. D. A. 1991. Memory for familiar and unfamiliar words: Evidence for a long-term memory contribution to short-term memory span. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 685– 701.Google Scholar
Hulme C., Roodenrys S., Schweickert R., Brown G. D. A., Martin S., & Stuart G. 1997. Word frequency effects on short-term memory tasks: Evidence for a redintegration process in immediate serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1217– 1232.Google Scholar
Jusczyk P. W., Luce P. A., & Charles-Luce J. 1994. Infants' sensitivity to phonotactic patterns in the native language. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 630– 645.Google Scholar
Kamhi A., & Catts H. 1986. Toward an understanding of developmental language and reading disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 51, 337– 347.Google Scholar
Kovas Y., Hayiou-Thomas M. E., Oliver B., Dale P. S., Bishop D. V. M., & Plomin R. 2005. Genetic influences in different aspects of language development: The etiology of language skills in 4.5 year-old twins. Child Development, 76, 632– 651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leonard L. 1998. Children with specific language impairments. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Majerus S., Van Der Linde M., Mulder L., Meulemans T., & Peters F. 2004. Verbal short-term memory reflects the sublexical organization of the phonological language network: Evidence from an incidental phontactic learning paradigm. Journal of Memory and Language, 51, 297– 306.Google Scholar
Marton K., & Schwartz R. G. 2003. Working memory capacity and language processes in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1138– 1153.Google Scholar
Masoura E., & Gathercole S. E. 1999. Phonological short-term memory and foreign vocabulary learning. International Journal of Psychology, 34, 383– 388.Google Scholar
Masoura E. V., & Gathercole S. E. 2005. Phonological short-term memory skills and new word learning in young Greek children. Memory, 13, 422– 429.Google Scholar
McArthur G. M., & Bishop D. V. M. 2004. Which people with specific language impairment have auditory processing deficits? Cognitive Neuropsychology, 21, 79– 94.Google Scholar
Merzenich M. M., Jenkins W. M., Johnston P., Schreiner C., Miller S. L., & Tallal P. 1996. Temporal processing deficits of language-learning impaired children ameliorated by training. Science, 271, 77– 81.Google Scholar
Metsala J. L. 1999. The development of phonemic awareness in reading disabled children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 20, 149– 158.Google Scholar
Michas I. C., & Henry L. A. 1994. The link between phonological memory and vocabulary acquisition. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12, 147– 164.Google Scholar
Montgomery J. 1995a. Sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment: The role of phonological working memory. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 187– 199.Google Scholar
Montgomery J. 1995b. Sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment: The role of phonological working memory. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 38, 178– 199.Google Scholar
Montgomery J. 2000. Verbal working memory in sentence comprehension in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 293– 308.Google Scholar
Munson B. 2001. Phonological pattern frequency and speech production in adults and children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 778– 792.Google Scholar
Munson B., Edwards J., & Beckman M. E. 2005. Relationships between nonword repetition accuracy and other measures of linguistic development in children with phonological disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 61– 78.Google Scholar
Palladino P., & Cornoldi C. 2004. Working memory performance of Italian students with foreign language learning difficulties. Learning and Individual Differences, 14, 137– 151.Google Scholar
Papagno C., Valentine T., & Baddeley A. D. 1991. Phonological short-term memory and foreign-language vocabulary learning. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 331– 347.Google Scholar
Papagno C., & Vallar G. 1992. Phonological short-term memory and the learning of novel words: The effects of phonological similarity and item length. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 44A, 47– 67.Google Scholar
Papagno C., & Vallar G. 1995. Verbal short-term memory and vocabulary learning in polyglots. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48A, 98– 107.Google Scholar
Pickering S. J., & Gathercole S. E. 2001. Working Memory Test Battery for Children. London: Psychological Corporation.
Roodenrys S., & Stokes J. 2001. Serial recall and nonword repetition in reading disabled children. Reading and Writing, 14, 379– 394.Google Scholar
Rosen S. 2003. Auditory processing in dyslexia and specific language impairment: Is there a deficit? What is its nature? Does it explain anything? Journal of Phonetics, 31, 509– 527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosen S., Van Der Lely H., Adlanrd A., & Manganari E. 2000. Backward masking in children with and without language disorders. British Journal of Audiology, 34, 124– 142.Google Scholar
Roy P., & Chiat S. 2004. A prosodically controlled word and nonword repetition task for 2- to 4-year olds: Evidence from typically-developing children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 4, 223– 234.Google Scholar
Sahlen B., Reuterskiold-Wagner C., Nettelbladt U., & Radeborg K. 1999. Non-word repetition in children with language impairment—Pitfalls and possibilities. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 34, 337– 352.Google Scholar
Salame P., & Baddeley A. D. 1986. Phonological factors in STM: Similarity and the unattended speech effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 24, 263– 265.Google Scholar
Schweikert R. 1993. A multinomial processing tree model for degradation and redintegration in immediate recall. Memory and Cognition, 21, 168– 175.Google Scholar
Service E. 1992. Phonology, working memory, and foreign-language learning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 45A, 21– 50.Google Scholar
Service E., & Craik F. I. M. 1993. Differences between young and older adults in learning a foreign vocabulary. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 608– 623.Google Scholar
Service E., & Kohonen V. 1995. Is the relation between phonological memory and foreign-language learning accounted for by vocabulary acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 16, 155– 172.Google Scholar
2002. SLI Consortium. A genome-wide scan identifies two novel loci involved in specific language impairment. American Journal of Human Genetics, 70, 384– 398.
2004. SLI Consortium. Highly significant linkage to SLI1 locus in an expanded sample of individuals affected by specific language impairment (SLI). American Journal of Human Genetics, 94, 1225– 1238.
Snowling M. 1981. Phonemic deficits in developmental dyslexia. Psychological Research, 43, 219– 234.Google Scholar
Snowling M., Chiat S., & Hulme C. 1991. Words, nonwords and phonological processes: Some comments on Gathercole, Willis, Emslie, & Baddeley. Applied Psycholinguistics, 12, 369– 373.Google Scholar
Snowling M., Goulandris N., Bowlby M., & Howell P. 1986. Segmentation and speech perception in relation to reading skill: A developmental analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41, 489– 507.Google Scholar
Snowling M., & Hulme C. 1989. A longitudinal case study of developmental phonological dyslexia. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 6, 379– 401.Google Scholar
Storkel H. 2001. Learning new words: Phonotactic probability in language development. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1321– 1338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stothard S. E., Snowling M. J., Bishop D. V. M., Chipchase B. B., & Kaplan C. A. 1998. Language-impaired preschoolers: A follow-up into adolescence. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 4, 407– 418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Summerfield Q., Palmer A. R., Foster J. R., Marshall D. H., & Twomey T. 1994. Clinical evaluation and test–retest reliability of the IHR–McCormick Automated Toy Discrimination Test. British Journal of Audiology, 28, 165– 179.Google Scholar
Tallal P., Miller S. L., Bedi G., Byma G., Wang X., Nagarajan S.S., et al. 1996. Language comprehension in language-learning impaired children improved with acoustically modified speech. Science, 271, 81– 84.Google Scholar
Tallal P., & Piercy M. 1973. Deficits of nonverbal auditory perception in children with developmental aphasia. Nature, 241, 468– 469.Google Scholar
Tallal P., & Piercy M. 1975. Developmental aphasia: The perception of brief vowels and extended stop consonants. Neuropsychologia, 12, 83– 94.Google Scholar
Tallal P., Stark R. E., & Mellitts D. 1985. The relationship between auditory temporal analysis and receptive language development: Evidence from studies of developmental language disorder. Neuropsychologia, 23, 527– 534.Google Scholar
Thorn A. S. C., & Gathercole S. E. 1999. Language-specific knowledge and short-term memory in bilingual and non-bilingual children. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A, 303– 324.Google Scholar
Thorn A. S. C., & Gathercole S. E. 2001. Language differences in verbal short-term memory do not exclusively originate in the process of subvocal rehearsal Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 8, 357– 365.Google Scholar
Thorn A. S. C., Gathercole S. E., & Frankish C. R. 2005. Redintegration and the benefits of long-term knowledge in verbal short-term memory: An evaluation of Schweikert's (1993) multinomial processing tree model. Cognitive Psychology, 50, 133– 158.Google Scholar
Trojano L., & Grossi D. 1995. Phonological and lexical coding in verbal short-term memory and learning. Brain and Cognition, 21, 336– 354.Google Scholar
Vallar G., & Baddeley A. D. 1984. Phonological short-term store, phonological processing and sentence comprehension: A neuropsychological case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 1, 121– 141.Google Scholar
van Bon W. H. J., & van der Pijl J. M. L. 1997. Effects of word length and wordlikeness on pseudoword repetition by poor and normal readers. Applied Psycholinguistics, 18, 101– 114.Google Scholar
Vitevitch M. S., & Luce P. A. 2005. Increases in phonotactic probability facilitate spoken nonword repetition. Journal of Memory and Language, 52, 193– 204.Google Scholar
Vitevitch M. S., Luce P. A., Charles-Luce J., & Kemmerer D. 1997. Phonotactics and syllable stress: Implications for the processing of spoken nonsense words. Language and Speech, 40, 47– 62.Google Scholar
Washington J. A., & Craig H. K. 2004. A language screening protocol for use with young African American children in urban settings. American Journal of Speech–Language Pathology, 13, 329– 340.Google Scholar
Wechsler D. 1990. Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Revised (UK). Hove: Psychological Corporation.