Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-vdxz6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-26T08:19:50.211Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Comprehension of English plural-singular marking by Mandarin-L1, early L2-immersion learners

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 May 2020

Brian V. Rusk Open the ORCID record for Brian V. Rusk [Opens in a new window] ,
Johanne Paradis  and
Juhani Järvikivi
Brian V. Rusk*
Affiliation:
University of Alberta
Johanne Paradis
Affiliation:
University of Alberta
Juhani Järvikivi
Affiliation:
University of Alberta
*
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Previous research has established that early second language (L2) learners in classroom immersion may not ultimately produce all L2 morphosyntactic features as first language (L1) speakers of the language do, whereas L2 comprehension outcomes are reported to be less divergent from those of L1 speakers. However, immersion learners’ L2 comprehension is typically assessed using tasks of holistic understanding, and therefore, little is known about fine-grained comprehension of specific morphosyntactic constructions. To address this, the present study examined online comprehension of English plural–singular marking by Mandarin-speaking, English-immersion learners in Taiwan. This semantically transparent feature differs from the L1 grammar and is a notable area of difficulty for Mandarin-speaking L2-English learners. The present study assesses middle school-aged immersion learners’ comprehension using a visual-world eye-tracking task combined with a picture decision task, comparing results to age-matched English-monolingual controls. After more than 8 years of L2 exposure, the immersion participants showed similarities and differences to monolinguals in plural–singular marking comprehension as measured by eye-tracking, and were less accurate in their interpretations on the picture decision task. This study shows that comprehension differences for a semantically transparent morphosyntactic construction can be apparent even after many years for learners who started immersion at an early age.

Keywords

child L2 acquisitionL2 comprehensionL2 immersionL2 morphosyntaxvisual-world eye tracking
Type
Original Article
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 41 , Issue 3 , May 2020 , pp. 547 - 577
Check for updates
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alanís, I. (2000). A Texas two-way bilingual program: Its effects on linguistic and academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 24, 225–248. doi: 10.1080/15235882.2000.10162763CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arias-Trejo, N., Cantrell, L. M., Smith, L. B., & Canto, Elda, A. A. (2014). Early comprehension of the Spanish plural. Journal of Child Language, 41, 1356–1372. doi: 10.1017/S0305000913000615CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baayen, H., Vasishth, S., Kliegl, R., & Bates, D. (2017). The cave of shadows: Addressing the human factor with generalized additive mixed models. Journal of Memory and Language, 94, 206–234. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2016.11.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baayen, R. H. (2008). Analyzing linguistic data: A practical introduction to statistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barner, D., Thalwitz, D., Wood, J., Yang, S. J., & Carey, S. (2007). On the relation between the acquisition of singular-plural morpho-syntax and the conceptual distinction between one and more than one. Developmental Science, 10, 365–373. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00591.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barr, D. J. (2008). Analyzing “visual world” eyetracking data using multilevel logistic regression. Journal of Memory and Language, 59, 457–474. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2007.09.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., & Walker, S. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67, 1–48. doi: 10.18637/jss.v067.i01CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berko, J. (1958). The childʼs learning of English morphology. Word, 14, 150–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bild, E. R., & Swain, M. (1989). Minority language students in a French immersion programme: Their French proficiency. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 10, 255–274. doi: 10.1080/01434632.1989.9994377CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2017). Praat: Doing phonetics by computer. Retrieved from http://www.praat.org/Google Scholar
Brandt-Kobele, O. C., & Höhle, B. (2010). What asymmetries within comprehension reveal about asymmetries between comprehension and production: The case of verb inflection in language acquisition. Lingua, 120, 1910–1925. doi: 10.1016/j.lingua.2010.02.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M., Lagrou, E., & Stevens, M. (2017). Visual word recognition in a second language: A test of the lexical entrenchment hypothesis with lexical decision times. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20, 530–548. doi: 10.1017/S1366728916000353CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Y. G., & Le, V.-N. (2018). A longitudinal investigation of parental social-economic status (SES) and young students’ learning of English as a foreign language. System, 73, 4–15. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2017.07.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cazabon, M. T., Nicoladis, E., & Lambert, W. E. (1998). Becoming bilingual in the Amigos two-way immersion program. Santa Cruz, CA: University of California–Berkeley, Center for Research on Education, Diversity, Excellence.Google Scholar
Chang, F., Dell, G. S., & Bock, K. (2006). Becoming syntactic. Psychological Review, 113, 234–272. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.113.2.234CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, L., Li, M., Kirby, J. R., Qiang, H., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2010). English language immersion and students’ academic achievement in English, Chinese and mathematics. Evaluation & Research in Education, 24, 151–169. doi: 10.1080/09500790.2010.489150CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, L. L.-S., & Sybesma, R. (1999). Bare and not-so-bare nouns and the structure of NP. Linguistic Inquiry, 30, 509–542. doi: 10.1162/002438999554192CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cheng, L. L.-S., & Sybesma, R. (2005). Classifiers in four varieties of Chinese. In Cinque, G. & Kayne, R. S. (Eds.), Handbook of comparative syntax (pp. 259–292). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chondrogianni, V., & Marinis, T. (2012). Production and processing asymmetries in the acquisition of tense morphology by sequential bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15, 5–21. doi: 10.1017/S1366728911000368CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clements, W. A., & Perner, J. (1994). Implicit understanding of belief. Cognitive Development, 9, 377–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Corbett, G. G. (2000). Number. Cambridge: Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cummins, J. (1998). Immersion education for the millennium: What we have learned from 30 years of research on second language immersion. In Childs, M. R. & Bostwick, R. M. (Eds.), Learning through two languages: Research and practice. Second Katoh Gakuen international symposium on immersion and bilingual education (pp. 34–37). Katoh Gakuen, Japan.Google Scholar
Davies, B., Xu Rattanasone, N., & Demuth, K. (2017). Two-year-olds’ sensitivity to inflectional plural morphology: Allomorphic effects. Language Learning and Development, 13, 38–53. doi: 10.1080/15475441.2016.1219257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davies, M. (2010). The Corpus of Contemporary American English as the first reliable monitor corpus of English. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 25, 447–464. doi: 10.1093/llc/fqq018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Day, E. M., & Shapson, S. M. (1987). Assessment of oral communicative skills in early French immersion programmes. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 8, 237–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Jong, N. H., & Wempe, T. (2009). Praat script to detect syllable nuclei and measure speech rate automatically. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 385–390. doi: 10.3758/BRM.41.2.385CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Villiers, J. G., & de Villiers, P. A. (1973). A cross-sectional study of the acquisition of grammatical morphemes in child speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2, 267–278. doi: 10.1007/BF01067106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dulay, H. C., & Burt, M. K. (1974). Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning, 24, 37–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (4th ed.). Bloomington, MN: Pearson.Google Scholar
Fox, J., & Weisberg, S. (2019). An R companion to applied regression (3rd. ed.). Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. (1981). A comparison of early and late second language learning. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 13, 115–128. doi: 10.1037/h0081168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Genesee, F. (1984). Historical and theoretical foundations of immersion education (pp. 32–57). Sacramento, CA: California State Department of Education.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. (1987). Learning through two languages: Studies in immersion and bilingual education. Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.Google Scholar
Genesee, F. (2006). What do we know about bilingual education for majority-language students? In Bhatia, T. K. & Ritchie, W. C. (Eds.), The handbook of bilingualism (pp. 547–576). London: Blackwell.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graves, M., & Koziol, S. (1971). Noun plural development in primary grade children. Child Development, 42, 1165–1173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grosjean, F. (2008). Studying bilinguals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Grüter, T., Lew-Williams, C., & Fernald, A. (2012). Grammatical gender in L2: A production or a real-time processing problem? Second Language Research, 28, 191–215. doi: 10.1177/0267658312437990CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hakuta, K. (1976). A case study of a Japanese child learning English as a second language. Language Learning, 26, 321–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harley, B. (1992). Patterns of second language development in French immersion. French Language Studies, 2, 159–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harley, B. (1993). Instructional strategies and SLA in early French immersion. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 245–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (1990). The nature of language proficiency. In Harley, B., Allen, P., Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (Eds.), The development of second language proficiency (pp. 7–25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harley, B., & Hart, D. (1997). Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom learners of different starting ages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 379–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harley, B., Hart, D., & Lapkin, S. (1986). The effects of early bilingual schooling on first language skills. Applied Psycholinguistics, 7, 295–321. doi: 10.1017/S0142716400007700CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harley, B., & Swain, M. (1978). An analysis of the verb system used by young learners of French. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 3, 35–79.Google Scholar
Hermanto, N., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Linguistic and metalinguistic outcomes of intense immersion education: How bilingual? International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 15, 131–145. doi: 10.1080/13670050.2011.652591CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopp, H. (2013). Grammatical gender in adult L2 acquisition: Relations between lexical and syntactic variability. Second Language Research, 29, 33–56. doi: 10.1177/0267658312461803CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jia, G. (2003). The acquisition of the English plural morpheme by native Mandarin Chinese-speaking children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1297–311. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2003/101)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jia, G., & Fuse, A. (2007). Acquisition of English grammatical morphology by native Mandarin-speaking children and adolescents: Age-related differences. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 1280–1299. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2007/090)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, N. (2007). Selective integration of linguistic knowledge in adult second language learning. Language Learning, 57, 1–33. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00397.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, N., Novokshanova, E., Masuda, K., & Wang, X. (2011). Morphological congruency and the acquisition of L2 morphemes. Language Learning, 61, 940–967. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00627.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keating, G. D. (2009). Sensitivity to violation of gender agreement in native and nonnative Spanish. Language Learning, 59, 503–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knell, E., Siegel, L. S., & Lin, Z. (2007). Early English immersion and literacy in Xi’an, China. Modern Language Journal, 91, 395–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kouider, S., Halberda, J., Wood, J., & Carey, S. (2006). Acquisition of English number marking: The singular-plural distinction. Language Learning and Development, 2, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kowal, M., & Swain, M. (1997). From semantic to syntactic processing. In Johnson, R. K. & Swain, M. (Eds.), Immersion education: International perspectives (pp. 284–309). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B., & Christiansen, R. H. B. (2017). lmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82, 1–26. doi: 10.18637/jss.v082.i13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kwon, S., & Zribi-Hertz, A. (2004). Number from a syntactic perspective: Why plural marking looks “truer” in French than in Korean. In Bonami, O. & Cabredo Hofherr, P. (Eds.), Empirical issues in formal syntax and semantics 5 (pp. 133–158). Paris: CSSP.Google Scholar
Lenth, R. (2019). Emmeans: Estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means. Retrieved from https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=emmeansGoogle Scholar
Levshina, N. (2015). How to do linguistics with R (p. 443). Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lew-Williams, C. (2017). Specific referential contexts shape efficiency in second language processing: Three eye-tracking experiments with 6- and 10-year-old children in Spanish immersion schools. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 37, 128–147. doi: 10.1017/S0267190517000101CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lew-Williams, C., & Fernald, A. (2010). Real-time processing of gender-marked articles by native and non-native Spanish speakers. Journal of Memory and Language, 63, 447–464. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2010.07.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, C. N., & Thompson, S. A. (1989). Mandarin Chinese: A functional reference grammar (p. 691). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Li, P., Ogura, T., Barner, D., Yang, S. J., & Carey, S. (2009). Does the conceptual distinction between singular and plural sets depend on language? Developmental Psychology, 45, 1644–1653. doi: 10.1037/a0015553CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y. H. A. (1999). Plurality in a classifier language. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 8, 75–99. doi: 10.1023/A:1008306431442CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K. (2011). Student outcomes in Chinese two-way immersion programs: Language proficiency, academic achievement, and student attitudes. In Tedick, D. J., Christian, D., & Williams Fortune, T. (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 81–103). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luk, Z. P.-S., & Shirai, Y. (2009). Is the acquisition order of grammatical morphemes impervious to L1 knowledge? Evidence from the acquisition of plural -s, articles, and possessive ʼs. Language Learning, 59, 721–754.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced approach. Amsterdam: Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyster, R., & Genesee, F. (2019). Immersion education. In Chapelle, C. A. (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (pp. 1–6). Hoboken: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lyster, R., & Tedick, D. J. (2014). Research perspectives on immersion pedagogy: Looking back and looking forward. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 2, 210–224. doi: 10.1075/jicb.2.2.04lysGoogle Scholar
Matthews, D. E., & Theakston, A. L. (2006). Errors of omission in English-speaking childrenʼs production of plurals and the past tense: The effects of frequency, phonology, and competition. Cognitive Science, 30, 1027–1052. doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog0000_66CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matuschek, H., Kliegl, R., Vasishth, S., Baayen, H., & Bates, D. (2017). Balancing Type I error and power in linear mixed models. Journal of Memory and Language, 94, 305–315. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2017.01.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S., & Potowski, K. (2007). Command of gender agreement in school-age Spanish-English bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11, 301–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mougeon, R., Nadasdi, T., & Rehner, K. (2010). The sociolinguistic competence of immersion students. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2008). Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics, 29, 578–596. doi: 10.1093/applin/amm056CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2014). The association between aptitude components and language skills in young learners. In Pawlak, M. & Aronin, L. (Eds.), Essential topics in applied linguistics and multilingualism (pp. 51–68). London: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muñoz, C., Cadierno, T., & Casas, I. (2018). Different starting points for English language learning: A comparative study of Danish and Spanish young learners. Language Learning, 68, 1076–1109. doi: 10.1111/lang.12309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nakanishi, K., & Tomioka, S. (2004). Japanese plurals are exceptional. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 13, 113–140. doi: 10.1023/B:JEAL.0000019058.46668.c1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ní Dhiorbháin, A., & Ó Duibhir, P. (2017). An explicit-inductive approach to grammar in Irish-medium immersion schools. Language Awareness, 26, 3–24. doi: 10.1080/09658416.2016.1261870CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ó Duibhir, P. (2011). “I thought we had good Irish”: Irish immersion students’ insights into their target language use. In Tedick, D. J., Christian, D., & Fortune, T. W. (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Ó Duibhir, P., Ní Dhiorbháin, A., & Cosgrove, J. (2016). An inductive approach to grammar teaching in grade 5 & 6 Irish immersion classes. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 4, 33–58. doi: 10.1075/jicb.4.1.02duiCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oniski, K. K., & Baillargeon, R. (2005). Do 15-month-old infants understand false beliefs? Science, 308, 255–258. doi: 10.1126/science.1107621CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paradis, J., Tulpar, Y., & Arppe, A. (2016). Chinese L1 childrenʼs English L2 verb morphology over time: Individual variation in long-term outcomes. Journal of Child Language, 43, 553–580. doi: 10.1017/S0305000915000562CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peter, L., Hirata-Edds, T., & Montgomery-Anderson, B. (2008). Verb development by children in the Cherokee language immersion program, with implications for teaching. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 18, 166–187. doi: 10.1111/j.1473-4192.2008.00199.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peter, L., Sly, G., & Hirata-Edds, T. (2011). Using language assessment to inform instruction in indigenous language immersion. In Tedick, D. J., Christian, D., & Williams Fortune, T. (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 187–208). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Porretta, V., Kyröläinen, A.-J., van Rij, J., & Järvikivi, J. (2018). VWPre: Tools for preparing visual world data (V 1.2.2). Retrieved from https:www.r-pkg.org/pkg/VWPreGoogle Scholar
R Core Team. (2018). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Retrieved from https://www.r-project.org/Google Scholar
Rullmann, H., & You, A. (2006). General number and the semantics and pragmatics of indefinite bare nouns in Mandarin Chinese. In von Heusinger, K. & Turner, K. (Eds.), Where semantics meets pragmatics (pp. 175–196). Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Shin, S. J., & Milroy, L. (1999). Bilingual language acquisition by Korean schoolchildren in New York City. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2, 147–167. doi: 10.1017/S1366728999000243CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel, L., Knell, E., Pei, M., Qiang, H., Zhao, W., & Zhao, L. (2010). Teaching English to Chinese-speaking children. In Chan, C. K. K. & Rao, N. (Eds.), Revisiting the Chinese learner (pp. 233–255). Dordrecht: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, Y. (2015). L2 processing of plural inflection in English. Language Learning, 65, 233–267. doi: 10.1111/lang.12100CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sun, H., Steinkrauss, R., Tendeiro, J., & de Bot, K. (2016). Individual differences in very young childrenʼs English acquisition in China: Internal and external factors. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19, 550–566. doi: 10.1017/S1366728915000243CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swain, M., & Johnson, R. K. (1997). Immersion education: A category within bilingual education. In Johnson, R. K. & Swain, M. (Eds.), Immersion education: International perspectives (pp. 1–16). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1982). Evaluating bilingual education: A Canadian case study. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1990). Aspects of the sociolinguistic performance of early and late French immersion students. In Scarcella, R. C., Andersen, E. S., & Krashen, S. D. (Eds.), Developing communicative competence in a second language (pp. 41–54). New York: Newbury.Google Scholar
Tedick, D. J., & Wesely, P. M. (2015). A review of research on content-based foreign/second language education in US K-12 contexts. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 28, 25–40. doi: 10.1080/07908318.2014.1000923CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tedick, D. J., & Young, A. I. (2016). Fifth grade two-way immersion students’ responses to form-focused instruction. Applied Linguistics, 37, 784–807. doi: 10.1093/applin/amu066CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, E. M., Williams, N., Jones, L. A., Davies, S., & Binks, H. (2014). Acquiring complex structures under minority language conditions: Bilingual acquisition of plural morphology in Welsh. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17, 478–494. doi: 10.1017/S1366728913000497CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., & Hart, D. (2001). Grade 3 immersion students’ performance in literacy and mathematics: Province-wide results from Ontario (1998–99). Canadian Modern Language Review, 58, 9–26. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.58.1.9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D., & Swain, M. (1998). Time on task and immersion graduates’ French proficiency. In Lapkin, S. (Ed.), French second language education in Canada: Empirical studies (pp. 31–55). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.Google Scholar
Unsworth, S., Argyri, F., Cornips, L., Hulk, A., Sorace, A., & Tsimpli, I. (2014). On the role of age of onset and input in early child bilingualism in Greek and Dutch. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35, 765–805.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Rij, J., Hollebrandse, B., & Hendriks, P. (2016). Childrenʼs eye gaze reveals their use of discourse context in object pronoun resolution. Empirical Perspectives on Anaphora Resolution, 277, 267–293.Google Scholar
van Rij, J., Wieling, M., Baayen, R. H., & van Rijn, H. (2017). itsadug: Interpreting Time Series and Autocorrelated Data Using GAMMs. R package version 2.3. Retrieved from https://cran-R-project.org/web/packages/itsadugGoogle Scholar
Venables, W. N., & Ripley, B. D. (2002). Modern applied statistics with S (4th ed.). New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warden, M. (1997). The effect of form-focused instruction on control over grammatical gender by French immersion students in grade 11. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Toronto.Google Scholar
Wen, Z., Miyao, M., Takeda, A., Chu, W., & Schwartz, B. D. (2010). Proficiency effects and distance effects in nonnative processing of English number agreement. Proceedings of the Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development, 34, 445–456.Google Scholar
Wood, J. N., Kouider, S., & Carey, S. (2009). Acquisition of singular-plural morphology. Developmental Psychology, 45, 202–206. doi: 10.1037/a0014432.AcquisitionCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, S. N. (2006). Generalized additive models: An introduction with R (p. 410). London: Chapman Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu Rattanasone, N., Davies, B., Schembri, T., Andronos, F., & Demuth, K. (2016). The iPad as a research tool for the understanding of English plurals by English, Chinese, and other L1 speaking 3- and 4-year-olds. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1–11. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01773CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zapf, J. A., & Smith, L. B. (2007). When do children generalize the plural to novel nouns? First Language, 27, 53–73. doi: 10.1177/0142723707070286CrossRefGoogle Scholar