Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T23:20:25.577Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Aging cremated infants: the problem of sacrifice at the Tophet of Carthage

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2015

P. Smith ,
G. Avishai ,
J.A. Greene  and
L.E. Stager
P. Smith*
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Bio-anthropology and Ancient DNA, Faculties of Medicine and Dentistry, Hadassah-Ein Karem, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel (Email: [email protected]; [email protected])
G. Avishai
Affiliation:
Laboratory of Bio-anthropology and Ancient DNA, Faculties of Medicine and Dentistry, Hadassah-Ein Karem, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91120, Israel (Email: [email protected]; [email protected])
J.A. Greene
Affiliation:
Semitic Museum, FAS Near Eastern Languages, 6 Divinity Avenue, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA (Email: [email protected]; [email protected])
L.E. Stager
Affiliation:
Semitic Museum, FAS Near Eastern Languages, 6 Divinity Avenue, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA (Email: [email protected]; [email protected])
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

The Greeks and Romans reproached the Phoenicians for the sacrifice of infants, and the excavation of cremated infants at ‘Tophets’ (named after the sacrificial site in Jerusalem mentioned in the Bible) seems to bear this out. However, the argument for infant sacrifice depends largely on a skewed age profile, and age is not easy to determine. The authors approach this problem with a battery of new techniques, showing that in the Tophet of Carthage the majority of the infants died between one and one and a half months. Sacrifice was thus very probable.

Keywords

CarthageTophetcremationinfant burialsage estimationsdeciduous teeth
Type
Debate
Information
Antiquity , Volume 85 , Issue 329 , September 2011 , pp. 859 - 874
Copyright
Copyright © Antiquity Publications Ltd 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, F. D., Burnet, J., Greene, W. C. & Parker, C. P. 1938. Scholia Platonica (Philological Monographs 8). Haverford (PA): American Philological Association.Google Scholar
Avishai, G., Muller, R., Gabet, Y., Bab, I., Zilberman, U. & Smith, P. 2004. New approach to quantify developmental variation in the dentition using serial microtomographic imaging. Microscopy Research and Technique 65: 263-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bénichou-Safar, H. 1982. Les tombes puniques de Carthage: topographie, structures, inscriptions et rites funéraires. Paris: CNRS.Google Scholar
Bénichou-Safar, H. 2004. Le tophet de Salammbô à Carthage. Essai de reconstitution (Collection de l'Ecole Française de Rome 342). Rome: l'Ecole Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Bonucci, E. & Graziani, G. 1975. Comparative thermogravimetric, X-ray diffraction and electron microscope investigation of burnt bones from recent, ancient and prehistoric age. Atti Della Accademia dei Cincei, Scienze Fisiche, Matematiche e Naturali 59: 517-34.Google Scholar
Brown, S. 1991. Late Carthaginian child sacrifice and sacrificial monuments in their Mediterranean context (JSOT/ASOR monograph series 3). Sheffield: JSOT Press for the American Schools of Oriental Research.Google Scholar
Cardoso, H. F. 2007. Accuracy of developing tooth length as an estimate of age in human skeletal remains: the deciduous dentition. Forensic Science International 172: 17–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christou, D. 1998. Cremations in the western Necropolis of Amathus, in Karageorghis, V. & Stampolidis, N. (ed.) Eastern Mediterranean: Cyprus, Dodecanese, Crete 16th-6th cent. BC. Proceedings of the International Symposium: 207–215. Athens: University of Crete & A. G. Leventis Foundation.Google Scholar
Deutsch, D. & Shapiro, L. 1987. Changes in mineral distribution and concentration during enamel development in the deciduous human maxillary and mandibular teeth. Growth 51: 334-41.Google ScholarPubMed
Deutsch, D., Tam, O. & Stack, M. V. 1985. Postnatal changes in size, morphology and weight of developing postnatal deciduous anterior teeth. Growth 49: 202–217.Google ScholarPubMed
De Onis, M., Garza, C., Onyango, A. W., Rolland-Cachera, M. F., Le Comite De Nutrition De La Societe Française De Pediatrie & Collaborators. 2009. WHO growth standards for infants and young children. Archives de Pédiatrie 16(1): 47–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fantar, M. H. 2000. An Odyssey debate: were living children sacrificed to the gods-No. Archaeological Odyssey 2: 28–31.Google Scholar
Fazekas, I. G. & Kosa, F. 1978. Forensic fetal osteology. Budapest: Akedemiai Kiado.Google Scholar
Fedele, F. & Foster, G. V. 1988. Tharros: ovicaprini sacrificiali e rituale del tophet. Revisti di Studi Fenici 16(1): 30–45.Google Scholar
Geer, R. M. 1962. Diodorus Siculus Bibliotheca Historica (Loeb Classical Library). Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gejvall, N-G. 1949. Determination of cremated bones in urns from Carthage. Report prepared for the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.Google Scholar
Gilchrist, R. & Mytum, H. C. 1986. Experimental archaeology and burnt animal bone from archeological sites. Circaea 4(1): 29–38.Google Scholar
Glover, T. R. 1931. Tertullian Apologeticus and De Spectaculis (Loeb Classical Library). Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gras, M., Rouillard, P. & Texidor, J. 1989. L'univers phénicien. Paris: Arthaud.Google Scholar
Harsányi, L. 1993. Differential diagnosis of human and animal bone, in Grupe, G. & Garland, A. N. (ed.) Histology of ancient bone: methods and diagnosis: 79–94. Berlin: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, N. 1998. Beyond infant mortality: gender and stillbirth in reproductive mortality before the twentieth century. Population Studies 52: 215-29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hillson, S. 2009. The world's largest infant cemetery and its potential for studying growth and development, in Schepartz, L. A., Fox, S. C. & Bourbou, C. (ed.) New directions in the skeletal biology of Greece (Hesperia Supplement 43): 137-54. Princeton (NJ): American School of Classical Studies at Athens.Google Scholar
Holck, P. 1995. Why are small children so seldom found in cremations?, in Smits, E., Irigren, E. & Drusini, A. G. (ed.) Cremation studies in archaeology: 33-8. Amsterdam: Logos Edition.Google Scholar
Holden, J. 1995. Scanning electron microscope observations of heat-treated human bone. Forensic Science International 74(2): 29–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houby-Nielsen, S. 2000. Child burials in ancient Athens, in Derevenski, J.S. (ed .) Children and material culture: 151-66. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Icard, F. 1922. Séance de la commission de L'Afrique du Nord. Bulletin Archéologique 23-4: 42-5.Google Scholar
Keinan, D., Smith, P. & Zilberman, U. 2006. Microstructure and chemical composition of primary teeth in children with Down syndrome and cerebral palsy. Archives of Oral Biology 51: 836-43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawoyin, T. O. 2001. Risk factors for infant mortality in a rural community in Nigeria. Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 12: 114-18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipiński, E. 1988. Sacrifices d'enfants a Carthage et dans le monde sémitique oriental Studia, in Lipinski, E. (ed.) Phoenicia VI. Carthago: 151-62. Leuven: Peeters.Google Scholar
Liversidge, H. M., Dean, M. C. & Molleson, T. L. 1993. Increasing human tooth length between birth and 5.4 years. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 90: 307–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moscati, S. 1987. Il sacrificio punico dei fanciulli: realtà o invenzione? Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei Quaderno 261: 3–15.Google Scholar
Moscati, S. & Uberti, M. L. 1985. Savi al tofet di Tharros (Collezioni di Studi Fenici 21). Rome: Consiglio Nazione dell Ricerche.Google Scholar
Müller, M., Depreux, R., Muller, P. & Fontaine, M. 1952. Recherches anthropologiques sur les ossements retrouvés dans des urnes Puniques. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 3(3): 160-73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olive, C. 1982. Etude anthropologique des restes osseux provenant de la nécropole archaïque du versant sud de la colline de Byrsa, in Lancel, S. (ed.) Byrsa II: 391-6. Rome: l'Ecole Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Pearson, L. & Sandbach, F. H. 1960. Plutarch Moralia (Loeb Classical Library). Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Person, A., Bocherons, H., Mariotti, A. & Renard, U. 1997. Diagenetic evolution and experimental heating of bone phosphate. Paleogeography, Paleoclimotology, Paleoecology 126: 135-49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poinssot, L. & Lantier, R. 1923. Un sanctuaire de Tanit à Carthage. Revue d'Historie des Religions 87: 32–68.Google Scholar
Reiche, I., Vignaud, C. & Menu, M. 2002. The crystallinity of ancient bone and dentine: new insights by transmission electron microscopy. Archaeometry 44: 447-59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richard, J. 1961. Etude médico-légale des urnes sacrificielles puniques et de leur contenu. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Université de Lille.Google Scholar
Robinson, D. M. 1942. Excavations at Olynthos, Part XI. Necrolynthia: a study in Greek burial customs and anthropology. Baltimore (MD): John Hopkins Press.Google Scholar
Saidah, R. 1966. Fouilles de Khalde. Bulletin de Musée de Beyrouth 19: 60–85.Google Scholar
Schwartz, J. H. 1993. Infants, burned bones, and sacrifice at ancient Carthage, in Schwartz, J. H. (ed.) What bones tell us: 28–57. New York: John Macrae.Google Scholar
Schwartz, J., Houghton, F., Macchiarelli, R. & Bondioli, L. 2010. Skeletal remains from Punic Carthage do not support systematic sacrifice of infants. PLoS One 5(2): e9177. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0009177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipman, P., Foster, G. & Schoeninger, M. 1984. Burnt bones and teeth: an experimental study of color, morphology, crystal structure and shrinkage. Journal of Archaeological Science 11: 307–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, M. & Dupras, T. 1993. Variation in birth timing and location of the neonatal line in human enamel. Journal of Forensic Sciences 38: 1383-90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, P. & Avishai, G. 2005. The use of dental criteria for estimating postnatal survival in skeletal remains of infants. Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 83-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, P., Horwitz, L. & Zias, J. 1990. Human remains from the Iron Age cemeteries at Akhziv. Part I: the built tomb from the southern cemetery. Rivista di Studi Fenici 18(2): 137-50.Google Scholar
Smith, P., Mazar, E., Sabari, P., Selah, M. & Ganchrow, R. 1993. The early Phoenicians, excavated from Achziv, northern Israel. National Geographic Research and Exploration 9(1): 54–69.Google Scholar
Soleil, M. M., Müller, P. & Richard, J. 1958. Contribution à la détermination de l'age des enfants sacrifices à Carthage. Annales de Medicine Legale et de Criminologie 38(1): 17–23.Google Scholar
Stager, L. E. 1980. The rite of child sacrifice at Carthage, in Pedley, J. G. (ed.) New light on ancient Carthage: 1–11. Ann Arbor (MI): University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Stager, L. E. 1982. Carthage a view from the Tophet, in Niemeyer, H. G. (ed.) Phönizier im Westen: die Beiträge des Internationalen Symposiums über 'Die phönizische Expansion im westlichen Mittelmeerraum' in Köln vom 24. bis 27. April 1979 (Madrider Beiträge 88): 155-66. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern.Google Scholar
Stager, L. E. & Greene, J. A. 2000. An Odyssey debate: were living children sacrificed to the gods -Yes. Archaeological Odyssey 2: 29–31.Google Scholar
Stager, L. E. & Wolff, S. R. 1984. Child sacrifice at Carthage-religious rite or population control? Archaeological evidence for a new analysis. Biblical Archaeology Review 10: 31–51.Google Scholar
Steuart, W. M. (ed.) 1924. Birth, stillbirth and infant mortality. Washington (DC): United States Department of Commerce.Google Scholar
Tocheri, M. W., Dupras, T. L., Sheldrick, B. P. & Molto, J. E. 2005. Roman period fetal skeletons from the east cemetery (Kellis 2) of Kellis, Egypt. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 15: 326-41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trelliso, L. 2004. The anthropological study on the human skeletal remains of Tyre-Al Bass 1997, in Aubet, M.-E. (ed.) The Phoenician cemetery of Tyre-Al Bass: excavations 1997-99 (Bulletin d'archéologie et d'architecture libanaises Hors-Série 1): 247-78. Beirut: Minstère de la culture, Direction Générale des Antiquités.Google Scholar
Ubelaker, D. H. & Rife, J. L. 2007. The practice of cremation in the Roman-era cemetery at Kenchreai, Greece: the perspective from archeology and forensic science. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 1: 35–57.Google Scholar
Van Zeist, W., Bottema, S. & Van Der Veen, M. 2001. Diet and vegetation at ancient Carthage: the archaeobotanical evidence. Groningen: Groningen Institute of Archaeology.Google Scholar
Vaux, R. De 1964. Studies in Old Testament sacrifice. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.Google Scholar
Vaughn, J. 1981. Physiology of bone. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Wells, C. 1960. A study of cremation. Antiquity 34: 29–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whitaker, J. I., S. 1921. Motya, a Phoenician colony in Sicily. London: G. Bell.Google Scholar