Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T13:35:00.142Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Riding on Homer's Chariot: The Search for a Historical ‘Epic Society’*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 January 2015

Kurt A. Raaflaub
Kurt A. Raaflaub*
Affiliation:
Brown University, Providence, RI, [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper continues the author's long-standing quest to define the historicity of ‘epic society’ and to understand epic warfare and battle descriptions. It summarises the range of questions involved and a number of aspects on which some agreement has been achieved. Further progress is only possible by using new approaches. One of these, the comparative study of epic traditions, has recently yielded important results that are briefly summarised. Another new approach, overlapping with that of narratology, aims at understanding the working methods and conventions of the epic singer's art. The application of this approach to the narrative of epic battles has made it possible to distinguish between two large type scenes: ‘normal battles’ and ‘flight and aristeia phases’. The former are essentially historical and thus help us understand early Greek fighting, while the latter are essentially fantastic. Three elements occur predominantly or almost exclusively in these fantasy scenes: the aristeiai of the greatest heroes, the active intervention of gods in battle, and the use of chariots in battle. The demonstration, provided in the final section of this paper, that the latter — a component of Homeric battle that has long resisted convincing explanation — is part of the singer's arsenal of fantastic entertainment and ‘special effects’, removes it from historical consideration and further facilitates the explanation of epic battles and their historicity.

Type
Research Article
Information
Antichthon , Volume 45 , 2011 , pp. 1 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © Australasian Society for Classical Studies 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

I thank the editors for their willingness to publish a revised and slightly expanded English version of this paper in Antichthon, and Robert Rollinger and Christoph Ulf, the editors of the volume (2011) in which an earlier German version will appear, for their permission and for valuable suggestions. Most heartfelt thanks go to the leadership of the Australasian Society for Classical Studies and to the convenors of its annual meeting in February 2010 in Perth, Lara and Neil O'Sullivan, for inviting Debby and me to attend this meeting and for their generous hospitality, and to all the friends and colleagues (Margaret Miller, Eric Csapo, and Tom Hillard foremost among them) who made our stay in Perth and Sydney comfortable, stimulating and unforgettable.

References

Anderson, J.K. (1965). ‘Homeric, British and Cyrenaic Chariots.’ AJA 69, 349–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J.K. (1975). ‘Greek Chariot-Borne and Mounted Infantry.’ AJA 79, 175–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Behr, Hans-Joachim, Biegel, Gerd, and Castritius, Helmut (eds). (2003). Troia — Traum und Wirklichkeit: Ein Mythos in Geschichte und Rezeption. Braunschweig.Google Scholar
Bowden, Hugh. (1993). ‘Hoplites and Homer: Warfare, Hero Cult, and the Ideology of the Polis’, in Rich, and Shipley, (1993) 45–63.Google Scholar
Bowra, C.M. (1952). Heroic Poetry. London.Google Scholar
Bryce, Trevor. (1998). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford.Google Scholar
Bryce, Trevor. (2003). ‘Relations between Hatti and Ahhiyawa in the Last Decades of the Bronze Age’, in Beckman, Gary, Beal, Richard and McMahon, Gregory (eds.), Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner Jr., 59–72. Winona Lake.Google Scholar
Bryce, Trevor. (2006). The Trojans and Their Neighbours. London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bugh, Glenn R. (1988). The Horsemen of Athens. Princeton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burkert, Walter. (1976). ‘Das hunderttorige Theben und die Datierung der Ilias', WS 89, 5–21.Google Scholar
Burkert, Walter. (1991). ‘Homerstudien und Orient’, in Latacz, (1991) 155–81.Google Scholar
Burkert, Walter. (1992). The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age. Trans. Pinder, Margaret E. and Burkert, Walter. Cambridge MA.Google Scholar
Burkert, Walter. (2003). Die Griechen und der Orient. Munich.Google Scholar
Burkert, Walter. (2004). Babylon, Memphis, Persepolis: Eastern Contexts of Greek Culture. Cambridge MA.Google Scholar
Calder, W.M. III. (1984). ‘Gold for Bronze: Iliad 6.232-36.’, in Studies Presented to Sterling Dow, 31–35. Durham NC.Google Scholar
Calhoun, George. (1962). ‘Polity and Society’, in Wace, A.J.B. and Stubbings, F.H. (eds.), A Companion to Homer, 431–52. London.Google Scholar
Cartledge, Paul. (2001). Spartan Reflections. London and Berkeley.Google Scholar
Cobet, Justus. (1983). ‘Gab es den Trojanischen Krieg?’ Antike Welt 14, 39–58.Google Scholar
Cobet, Justus. and Gehrke, Hans-Joachim. (2002). ‘Warum um Troia immer wieder streiten?’ GWU52, 290–325.Google Scholar
Cook, Erwin F. (1995). The Odyssey in Athens: Myths of Cultural Origins. Ithaca NY.Google Scholar
Crielaard, Jean-Paul. (1995). ‘Homer, History and Archaeology: Some Remarks on the Date of the Homeric World’, in Crielaard, (ed.), Homeric Questions, 201–88. Amsterdam.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crouwel, J.H. (1981). Chariots and Other Means of Land Transport in Bronze Age Greece. Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Crouwel, J.H. (1992). Chariots and Other Wheeled Vehicles in Iron Age Greece. Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Deger-Jalkotzy, Sigrid, and Lemos, Irene S. (eds). (2006). Ancient Greece: From the Mycenaean Palaces to the Age of Homer. Edinburgh.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Jong, I.J.F. (1997). ‘Homer and Narratology’, in Morris, and Powell, (1997) 305–25.Google Scholar
de Jong, I.J.F. (2004). ‘Homer’, in Jong, de, Nünlist, René and Bowie, Angus (eds). Narrators, Narratees, and Narratives in Ancient Greek Literature: Studies in Ancient Greek Narrative, I, 13–24. Leiden.Google Scholar
de Jong, I.J.F. and Nünlist, René. (2004). ‘From Bird's Eye View to Close-up: The Standpoint of the Narrator in the Homeric Epics’, in Bierl, Anton, Schmitt, Arbogast, and Willi, Andreas (eds), Antike Literatur in neuer Deutung: Festschrift Joachim Latacz, 63–83. Munich and Leipzig.Google Scholar
Delebecque, Edouard. (1951). Le cheval dans l'Iliade. Paris.Google Scholar
Detienne, Marcel. (1968). ‘Remarques sur le char en Grèce’, in Vernant, Jean-Pierre (ed.), Problèmes de la guerre en Grèce ancienne, 313–18. Paris and The Hague.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Detienne, Marcel and Vernant, Jean-Pierre. (1978). Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society. Trans. Janet Lloyd. Hassocks.Google Scholar
Donlan, Walter (1981/1982). ‘Reciprocities in Homer’, CW 15, 137–75.Google Scholar
Donlan, Walter (1999a). The Aristocratic Ideal and Selected Papers. Wauconda IL.Google Scholar
Donlan, Walter (1999b). ‘Duelling with Gifts in the Iliad: As the Audience Saw It’, in Donlan, (1999a) 321–44.Google Scholar
Donlan, Walter (1999c). ‘Homeric temenos and the Land Economy of the Dark Age’, in Donlan, (1999a) 303–20.Google Scholar
Donlan, Walter (1999d). ‘The Unequal Exchange between Glaucus and Diomedes in Light of the Homeric Gift-Economy’, in Donlan, (1999a) 267–82.Google Scholar
Donlan, Walter (2002). ‘Achilles the Ally’, Arethusa 35, 155–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drews, Robert (1993). The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C. Princeton.Google Scholar
Drews, Robert (2004). Early Riders: The Beginnings of Mounted Warfare in Asia and Europe. London.Google Scholar
Fantuzzi, Marco (1984). ‘Preistoria dell'esametro e storia della cultura greca arcaica. A proposito di alcuni studi recenti’, Materiali e discussioni per l'analisi dei testi classici 12-13, 35–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fantuzzi, Marco and Pretagostini, Roberto (eds). (1996). Struttura e storia dell’ esametro greco. 2 vols. Rome.Google Scholar
Feeney, D.C. (1991). The Gods in Epic: Poets and Crides of the Classical Tradition. Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finley, M.I. (1977). The World of Odysseus. 2nd ed. London. (First ed. New York 1954.) Reprint with an introduction by Simon Hornblower. London 2002.Google Scholar
Finley, M.I. (1982). Economy and Society in Ancient Greece. Eds. Shaw, Brent D. and Sailer, Richard P.. New York.Google Scholar
Finley, M.I., Caskey, J.L., Kirk, G.S., and Page, D.L.. (1964). ‘The Trojan War’, JHS 84, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fisher, N.R.E., and Wees, Hans van (eds). (1998). Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence. London and Swansea.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foley, John Miles (ed.). (2005). A Companion to Ancient Epic. Maiden MA and Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, Robert (ed.). (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franz, Johann P. (2002). Krieger, Bauern, Burger. Untersuchungen zu den Hopliten der archaischen und klassischen Zeit. Frankfurt am Main.Google Scholar
Freu, Jacques. (1998). ‘Les relations entre Troie et le monde hittite. Un problème de géographie historique’, in Isebaert, L. and Lebrun, R. (eds), Quaestiones Homericae, 95–118. Louvain-Namur.Google Scholar
Gaebel, Robert E. (2002). Cavalry Operations in the Ancient Greek World. Norman OK.Google Scholar
Gallucci, Ralph. (1999). ‘Studies in Homeric Epic Tradition’, in Jones-Bley, Karleneet al. (eds), Proceedings of the Tenth Annual UCLA Indo-European Conference, 165–82. Washington DC.Google Scholar
Giovannini, Adalberto. (1989). ‘Homer und seine Welt’, in Alföldy, Geza (ed.), Vom frühen Griechentum bis zur römischen Kaiserzeit: Gedenk- und Jubiläumsvorträge am Heidelberger Seminar für Alte Geschichte, 25–39. Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Gorman, Vanessa B. (2001). Miletus, the Ornament of Ionia: A History of the City to 400 B.C.E. Ann Arbor.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graf, Fritz. (1991). ‘Religion und Mythologie im Zusammenhang mit Homer: Forschung und Ausblick’, in Latacz, (1991) 331–62.Google Scholar
Graf, Fritz (2002). ‘Zum Figurenbestand der Ilias: Götter’, in Graf, et al. (2002) 115–13.Google Scholar
Graf, Fritz, Jong, Irene de, Latacz, Joachimet al. (2002). Homers Ilias: Gesamt- kommentar. Prolegomena. 2nd ed. Munich and Leipzig.Google Scholar
Greenhalgh, P.A.L. (1973). Early Greek Warfare: Horsemen and Chariots in the Homeric and Archaic Ages. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Grethlein, Jonas. (2006). Das Geschichtsbild der Ilias. Eine Untersuchung aus phänomenologischer und narratologischer Perspektive. Göttingen.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grethlein, Jonas. (2008). ‘Memory and Material Objects in the Iliad and the Odyssey’, JHS 128, 27–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grethlein, Jonas. (2010). ‘From ‘Imperishable Glory’ to History: The Iliad and the Trojan War’, in Konstan, and Raaflaub, (2010) 122–44.Google Scholar
Hampl, Franz. (1975). ‘Die Ilias ist kein Geschichtsbuch’, in Hampl, , Geschichte als kritische Wissenschaft, II, 51–99. Darmstadt.Google Scholar
Hanson, V.D. (ed.). (1991). Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience. London.Google Scholar
Hatto, A.T., and Hainsworth, J.B. (eds). (1980). Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry. 2 vols. London.Google Scholar
Hellmann, Oliver. (2000). Die Schlachtszenen der Ilias. Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Herman, Gabriel. (1987). Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Jackson, A.H. (1991). ‘Hoplites and the Gods: The Dedication of Captured Arms and Armour’, in Hanson, (1991) 228–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janko, Richard. (1982). Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns: Diachronie Developmentin Epic Diction. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Jensen, Minna Skafte. (1980). The Homeric Question and the Oral-Formulaic Theory. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Kearns, Emily. (2004). ‘The Gods in the Homeric Epics’, in Fowler, (2004) 59–73.Google Scholar
Kirk, G.S. (1960). ‘Objective Dating Criteria in Homer’, MH 17, 189–205.Google Scholar
Kirk, G.S. (1990). The Iliad: A Commentary, II: Books 5-8. Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Konstan, David, and Raaflaub, Kurt A. (eds). (2010). Epic and History. Maiden MA and Oxford.Google Scholar
Korfmann, Manfred. (2002). ‘Ilios, ca 1200 BC — Ilion, ca 700 BC: Report on Findings from Archaeology’, in Montanari, Franco (ed.), Omero tremila anni dopo, 209–226. Rome.Google Scholar
Kullmann, Wolfgang. (1985). ‘Gods and Men in the Iliad and Odyssey’, HSCP 89, 1–23.Google Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (1977). Kampfparänese, Kampfdarstellung und Kampfwirklichkeit in der Ilias, bei Kallinos und Tyrtaios. Munich.Google Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (ed.). (1991). Zweihundert Jahre Homer-Forschung: Rückblick und Ausblick. Stuttgart.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (1996). Homer: His Art and His World. Trans. Holoka, James P.. Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (2002). ‘Formelhaftigkeit und Mündlichkeit’, in Graf, et al. (2002) 39–59.Google Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (2004). Troy and Homer: Toward the Solution of an Old Mystery. Trans. Windle, Kevin and Ireland, Rosh. Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (2005). Troia und Homer. Der Weg zur Lösung eines alten Rätsels. 5th ed. Munich.Google Scholar
Latacz, Joachim. (2011). ‘Zur Überlieferung der Troia-Geschichte durch die “Dunklen Jahrhunderte’”, in Matthäus, Hartmut (ed.), Die Ursprünge Europas und der Orient: Kulturelle Beziehungen von der Späten Bronzezeit bis zur Frühen Eisenzeit. In press.Google Scholar
Lattimore, Richmond. (1951). The Iliad of Homer: Translated and with an Introduction. Chicago.Google Scholar
Lendon, J.E. (2005). Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. New Haven.Google Scholar
Lesky, Albin. (1966). ‘Zur Eingangsszene der Patroklie’, in Lesky, Gesammelte Schriften. Aufsätze und Reden zu antiker und deutscher Dichtung und Kultur, 72–80. Ed. Kraus, Walther. Bern and Munich.Google Scholar
Littauer, M.A. (1972). ‘The Military Use of the Chariot in the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age’, AJA 76, 145–57. Repr. in Littauer and Crouwel (2002) 75–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littauer, M.A. and Crouwel, J.H.. (1983). ‘Chariots in Late Bronze Age Greece’, Antiquity 57, 187–92. Repr. in Littauer and Crouwel (2002) 55-61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littauer, M.A. and Crouwel, J.H.. (2002). Selected Writings on Chariots and Other Early Vehicles, Riding and Harness. Ed. Raulwing, Peter. Leiden.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lloyd, A.B. (ed.). (1996). Battle in Antiquity. London.Google Scholar
Long, A.A. (1970). ‘Morals and Values in Homer’, JHS 90, 121–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lorimer, H.L. (1950). Homer and the Monuments. London.Google Scholar
Louden, Bruce. (2005). ‘The Gods in Epic, or the Divine Economy’, in Foley, (2005) 90–104.Google Scholar
Mackie, C.J. (2008). Rivers of Fire: Mythic Themes in Homer's Iliad. Washington DC.Google Scholar
Matthew, Christopher (forthcoming). A Storm of Spears: A Reappraisal of Hoplite Combat.Google Scholar
Minchin, Elizabeth. (2001). Homer and the Resources of Memory: Some Applications of Cognitive Theory to the Iliad and Odyssey. Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Stephen. (1996). ‘Hoplite Warfare in Ancient Greece’, in Lloyd, (1996) 87–105.Google Scholar
Morgan, Catherine. (1993). ‘The Origins of Pan-Hellenism’, in Marinatos, Nanno and Hägg, Robin (eds), Greek Sanctuaries: New Approaches, 1844. London.Google Scholar
Morris, Ian. (1986). ‘The Use and Abuse of Homer’, CA 5, 81–138.Google Scholar
Morris, Ian. (1997). ‘Homer and the Iron Age’, in Morris, and Powell, (1997) 535–59.Google Scholar
Morris, Ian. (1998). ‘Archaeology and Archaic History’, in Fisher, and Wees, van (1998) 1–91.Google Scholar
Morris, Ian and Powell, Barry (eds). (1997). A New Companion to Homer. Leiden.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, S.P. (1995). ‘The Sacrifice of Astyanax: Near Eastern Contributions to the Siege of Troy’, in Carter, J.B. and Morris, S.P. (eds), The Ages of Homer: A Tribute to Emily Townsend Vermeule, 221–45. Austin.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (1979). The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry. Baltimore. Rev. ed. 1999.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (1990). Greek Mythology and Poetics. Ithaca NY.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (1996a). Homeric Questions. Austin.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (1996b). Poetry as Performance: Homer and Beyond. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (2002). Plato's Rhapsody and Homer's Music: The Poetics of the Panathenaic Festival in Classical Athens. Washington DC and Athens.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (2003). Homeric Responses. Austin.Google Scholar
Nagy, Gregory. (2004). Homer's Text and Language. Urbana.Google Scholar
Niemeier, Wolf-Dietrich. (1998). ‘The Mycenaeans in Western Anatolia and the Problem of the Origins of the Sea Peoples’, in Gitin, Seymour, Mazar, Amihai and Stern, Ephraim (eds), Mediterranean Peoples in Transition: Thirteenth to Early Tenth Centuries BCE, 17–65. Jersualem.Google Scholar
Niemeier, Wolf-Dietrich. (1999). ‘Mycenaeans and Hittites in Western Asia Minor’, in Laffineur, Robert (ed.), Polemos. Le contexte guerrier en Egée à l'Age du Bronze, 141–55. Liège and Austin TX.Google Scholar
Osborne, Robin. (1996). Greece in the Making, 1200-47. BC. London.Google Scholar
Osborne, Robin. (2004). ‘Homer's Society’, in Fowler, (2004) 206–19.Google Scholar
Patzek, Barbara. (1992). Homer und Mykene: Mündliche Dichtung und Geschichtsschreibung. Munich.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, Barry B. (1991). Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powell, Barry B. (1997). ‘Homer and Writing’, in Morris, and Powell, (1997) 33–54.Google Scholar
Powell, Barry B. (2002). Writing and the Origins of Greek Literature. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Powell, Barry B. (2009). Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Maiden MA and Oxford.Google Scholar
Pritchett, William B. (1985). ‘The Pitched Battle’, in Pritchett, , The Greek State at War, IV, 1–93. Berkeley.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1991). ‘Homer und die Geschichte des 8. Jh.s v. Chr.’, in Latacz, (1991) 205–56.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1993). ‘Homer to Solon: The Rise of the Polis. The Written Sources’, in Hansen, Mogens H. (ed.), The Ancient Greek City-State, 41–105. Copenhagen.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1997a). ‘Homeric Society’, in Morris, and Powell, (1997) 624–49.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1997b). ‘Politics and Interstate Relations among Early Greek Poleis: Homer and Beyond’, Antichthon 31, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1997c). ‘Citizens, Soldiers, and the Evolution of the Early Greek Polis,’ in Mitchell, Lynette and Rhodes, P.J. (eds), The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece, 49–59. London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1997/1998). ‘Homer, the Trojan War, and History’, CW 91, 386–403.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1998). ‘A Historian's Headache: How to Read “Homeric Society”?’, in Fisher, and Wees, van (1998) 169–93.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (1999). ‘Archaic Greece’, in Raaflaub, and Rosenstein, Nathan (eds), War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds, 129–61. Washington DC.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2000). ‘Poets, Lawgivers, and the Beginnings of Political Reflection in Archaic Greece’, in Rowe, Christopher and Schofleld, Malcolm (eds), The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Political Thought, 23–59. Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2003). ‘Die Bedeutung der Dark Ages: Mykene, Troia und die Griechen’, in Ulf, (2003) 309–29.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2005a). ‘Epic and History’, in Foley, (2005) 55–70.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2005b). ‘Homerische Krieger, Protohopliten und die Polis: Schritte zur Lösung alter Probleme’, in Meissner, Burkhard, Schmitt, Oliver and Sommer, Michael (eds), Krieg, Gesellschaft, Institutionen. Beiträge zu einer vergleichenden Kriegsgeschichte, 229–66. Berlin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2006). ‘Historical Approaches to Homer’, in Deger-Jalkotzy, and Lemos, (2006) 449–62.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2008). ‘Homeric Warriors and Battles: Trying to Resolve Old Problems', CW 101, 469–83.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. (2011). ‘Early Greek Infantry Fighting in a Mediterranean Context’, in Viggiano, Gregory and Kagan, Donald (eds), The Origins of the Greek Phalanx: Hoplite Warfare and the Archaic and Classical Polis. Princeton.Google Scholar
Raaflaub, Kurt A. and Wees, Hans van (eds). (2009). A Companion to Archaic Greece. Maiden MA and Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redfield, James. (1975). Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hector. Chicago. Exp. ed. 1994.Google Scholar
Reynolds, Dwight R. (2010). ‘Epic and History in the Arabic Tradition’, in Konstan, and Raaflaub, (2010) 392–410.Google Scholar
Rich, John, and Shipley, Graham (eds). (1993). War and Society in the Greek World. London.Google Scholar
Rollinger, Robert. (1996). ‘Altorientalische Motivik in der frühgriechischen Literatur am Beispiel der homerischen Epen. Elemente des Kampfes in der Ilias und in der altorientalischen Literatur (nebst Überlegungen zur Präsenz altorientalischer Wanderpriester im früharchaischen Griechenland)’, in Ulf, Christoph (ed.), Wege zur Genese griechischer Identität. Die Bedeutung der früharchaischen Zeit, 156–210. Berlin.Google Scholar
Rollinger, Robert and Ulf, Christoph (eds). (2011). Lag Troja in Kilikien? Der aktuelle Streit um Homers Ilias. Darmstadt.Google Scholar
Sabin, Philip, Wees, Hans van and Whitby, Michael (eds). (2007). The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, I. Cambridge.Google Scholar
Schadewaldt, Wolfgang. (1965). ‘Homer und sein Jahrhundert’, in Schade-waldt, , Von Homers Welt und Werk, 87–129. 4th ed. Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Schrott, Raoul. (2008). Homers Heimat. Der Kampf um Troia und seine realen Hintergründe. Munich.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Adam. (2002). ‘The Early Hoplite Phalanx: Order or Disarray?’ C & M 53, 31–64.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Adam. (2009). Reinstating the Hoplite: Arms, Armour and Phalanx Fighting in Archaic and Classical Greece. Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Sears, Matthew. (2010). ‘Warrior Ants: Elite Troops in the Iliad’, CW 103, 139–55.Google Scholar
Shay, Jonathan. (1994). Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character. New York.Google Scholar
Shay, Jonathan. (2000). ‘Killing Rage: physis or nomos — or Both?’, in Wees, van (2000b) 31–56.Google Scholar
Shay, Jonathan. (2002). Odysseus in America: Combat Trauma and the Trials of Homecoming. New York.Google Scholar
Shear, I.M. (2000). Tales of Heroes: The Origins of the Homeric Text. New York.Google Scholar
Sherratt, Susan. (1990). ‘“Reading the Texts”: Archaeology and the Homeric Question’, Antiquity 64, 807–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherratt, Susan. (2005). ‘Archaeological Contexts’, in Foley, (2005) 119–41.Google Scholar
Singor, Henk. (1991). ‘Nine Against Troy. On Epic phalanges, promachoi, and an Old Structure in the Story of the Iliad’, Mnemosyne 44, 17–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singor, Henk. (2009). ‘War and International Relations [in Archaic Greece]’, in Raaflaub, and Wees, van (2009) 585–603.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (1964). Early Greek Armour and Weapons from the End of the Bronze Age to 600 BC. Edinburgh.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (1965). ‘The Hoplite Reform and History’, JHS 85, 110–22. Rev. repr. in Snodgrass (2006) 309-30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (1967). Arms and Annour of the Greeks. London. New ed. with Supp. Baltimore 1999.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (1974). ‘An Historical Homeric Society?’ JHS 94, 114–25. Rev. repr. in Snodgrass (2006) 173–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (1980). Archaic Greece: The Age of Experiment. Berkeley.Google Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (1993). ‘The “Hoplite Reform” Revisited’, Dialogues d'histoire ancienne 19, 47–61. Rev. repr. in Snodgrass (2006) 344-59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snodgrass, Anthony. (2006). Archaeology and the Emergence of Greece. Ithaca NY.Google Scholar
Starke, Frank. (1997). ‘Troia im Kontext des historisch-politischen und sprachlichen Umfeldes Kleinasiens im 2. Jt.’, Studia Troica 7, 447–87.Google Scholar
Strasburger, Hermann. (1953). ‘Der soziologische Aspekt der homerischen Epen’, Gymnasium 60, 97–114. Repr. in Strasburger, Studien zur Alten Geschichte, I, 491–518. Eds. Walter Schmitthenner and Renate Zoepffel. Hildesheim.Google Scholar
Strauss, Barry. (2006). The Trojan War: A New History. New York.Google Scholar
Tritle, Lawrence. (1997). ‘Hector's Body: Mutilation of the Dead in Ancient Greece and Vietnam’, AHB 11, 123–36.Google Scholar
Tritle, Lawrence. (2000). From Melos to My Lai: War and Survival. London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tritle, Lawrence. (2003). ‘Alexander and the Killing of Cleitus the Black’, in Heckel, Waldemar and Tritle, Lawrence (eds), Crossroads of History: The Age of Alexander, 127–46. Claremont CA.Google Scholar
Tritle, Lawrence. (2009). ‘Inside the Hoplite Agony’, Ancient History Bulletin 23, 50–69.Google Scholar
Troia (2001). Troia: Traum und Wirklichkeit. Exhibition Catalog. Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Ulf, Christoph. (1990). Die homerische Gesellschaft. Materialien zur analytischen Beschreibung und historischen Lokalisierung. Munich.Google Scholar
Ulf, Christoph. (ed.). (2003). Der neue Streit um Troja. Eine Bilanz. Munich.Google Scholar
Ungern-Sternberg, , von, Jürgen, and Reinau, Hansjörg (eds). (1988). Vergangenheit in mündlicher Überlieferung. Stuttgart.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vansina, Jan. (1985). Oral Tradition as History London.Google Scholar
Vaughn, Pamela. (1991). ‘The Identification and Retrieval of the Hoplite Battle-Dead’, in Hanson, (1991) 38–62.Google Scholar
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. (1986). The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World. Trans. Szegedy-Maszak, Andrew. Baltimore.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagner-Hasel, Beate. (2000). Der Stoff der Gaben. Kultur und Politik des Schenkens und Tauschens im archaischen Griechenland. Frankfurt am Main.Google Scholar
Wagner-Hasel, Beate. (2006). ‘Gift Exchange: Modern Theories and Ancient Attitudes’, in Deger-Jalkotzy, and Lemos, (2006) 257–69.Google Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (1992). Status Warriors: Violence and Society in Homer and History. Amsterdam.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (1994). ‘The Homeric Way of War: The Iliad and the Hoplite Phalanx’, Greece & Rome 41, 1-18, 131–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (1996). ‘Heroes, Knights and Nutters: Warrior Mentality in Homer’, in Lloyd, (1996) 1–86.Google Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (1997). ‘Homeric Warfare’, in Morris, and Powell, (1997) 668–93.Google Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (2000a). ‘The Development of the Hoplite Phalanx: Iconography and Reality in the Seventh Century’, in Wees, van (2000b) 125–66.Google Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (ed.). (2000b). War and Violence in Ancient Greece. London and Swansea.Google Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (2004). Greek Warfare: Myths andRealities. London.Google Scholar
Wees, Hans van. (2007). ‘War and Society’, in Sabin, et al. (2007) 272–99.Google Scholar
Wenger, Rupert. (2008). Strategie, Taktik und Gefechtstechnik in der Ilias. Analyse der Kampfbeschreibungen der Ilias. Hamburg.Google Scholar
West, M.L. (1988). ‘The Rise of the Greek Epic’, JHS 108, 151–72.Google Scholar
West, M.L. (1995). ‘The Date of the Iliad’, MH 52, 203–19.Google Scholar
West, M.L. (1997). The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth. Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, M.L. (2002). ‘Geschichte des Textes’, in Graf, et al. (2002) 27–38.Google Scholar
Wiesner, Joseph. (1968). Fahren und Reiten. Archaeologia Homérica IF. Göttingen.Google Scholar
Wilson, John-Paul. (2009). ‘Literacy’, in Raaflaub, and Wees, van (2009) 542–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Worley, Leslie J. (1994). Hippeis: The Cavalry of Ancient Greece. Boulder.Google Scholar