Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T02:48:54.734Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The effectiveness of Virkon® S disinfectant against an invasive insect and implications for Antarctic biosecurity practices

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 September 2020

Jesamine C. Bartlett Open the ORCID record for Jesamine C. Bartlett [Opens in a new window] ,
Richard James Radcliffe Open the ORCID record for Richard James Radcliffe [Opens in a new window] ,
Pete Convey Open the ORCID record for Pete Convey [Opens in a new window] ,
Kevin A. Hughes Open the ORCID record for Kevin A. Hughes [Opens in a new window]  and
Scott A.L. Hayward Open the ORCID record for Scott A.L. Hayward [Opens in a new window]
Jesamine C. Bartlett*
Affiliation:
School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, EdgbastonB15 2TT, UK British Antarctic Survey, CambridgeCB3 0ET, UK Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Høgskoleringen 9, 7034Trondheim, Norway.
Richard James Radcliffe
Affiliation:
School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, EdgbastonB15 2TT, UK
Pete Convey
Affiliation:
British Antarctic Survey, CambridgeCB3 0ET, UK
Kevin A. Hughes
Affiliation:
British Antarctic Survey, CambridgeCB3 0ET, UK
Scott A.L. Hayward
Affiliation:
School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, EdgbastonB15 2TT, UK
*
[email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The flightless midge Eretmoptera murphyi is thought to be continuing its invasion of Signy Island via the treads of personnel boots. Current boot-wash biosecurity protocols in the Antarctic region rely on microbial biocides, primarily Virkon® S. As pesticides have limited approval for use in the Antarctic Treaty area, we investigated the efficacy of Virkon® S in controlling the spread of E. murphyi using boot-wash simulations and maximum threshold exposures. We found that E. murphyi tolerates over 8 h of submergence in 1% Virkon® S. Higher concentrations increased effectiveness, but larvae still exhibited > 50% survival after 5 h in 10% Virkon® S. Salt and hot water treatments (without Virkon® S) were explored as possible alternatives. Salt water proved ineffective, with mortality only in first-instar larvae across multi-day exposures. Larvae experienced 100% mortality when exposed for 10 s to 50°C water, but they showed complete survival at 45°C. Given that current boot-wash protocols alone are an ineffective control of this invasive insect, we advocate hot water (> 50°C) to remove soil, followed by Virkon® S as a microbial biocide on ‘clean’ boots. Implications for the spread of invasive invertebrates as a result of increased human activity in the Antarctic region are discussed.

Keywords

biosecurityChironomidaeinvertebrate controlSigny Islandspecies management
Type
Biological Sciences
Information
Antarctic Science , Volume 33 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 1 - 9
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Antarctic Science Ltd 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Athanassiou, C.G., Phillip, T.W., Aikins, M.J., Hasan, M.M. & Throne, J.E. 2012. Effectiveness of sulfuryl fluoride for control of different life stages of stored-product psocids (Psocoptera). Journal of Economic Entomology, 105, 282–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, J.C., Convey, P. & Hayward, S.A.L. 2018a. Life cycle and phenology of an Antarctic invader - the flightless chironomid midge, Eretmoptera murphyi. Polar Biology, 42, 115–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, J.C., Convey, P. & Hayward, S.A.L. 2018b. Not so free range: oviposition microhabitat and egg clustering effects Eretmoptera murphyi (Diptera Chironomidae) reproductive success. Polar Biology, 42, 271–284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, J.C., Convey, P., Pertierra, L.R. & Hayward, S.A.L. 2020. An insect invasion of Antarctica: the past, present and future distribution of Eretmoptera murphyi (Diptera, Chironomidae) on Signy Island. Insect Conservation and Diversity, 13, 10.1111/icad.12389.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BAS. 2019. BAS Biosecurity Regulations (Edition Jan 2019). Cambridge: British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved from https://www.bas.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/BAS-Biosecurity-Handbook-January-2019-FINAL.pdf (accessed 3 February 2019).Google Scholar
Burn, A.J. 1982. A cautionary tale - two recent introductions to the maritime Antarctic. Comité National Francais des Recherches Antarctiques, 51, 521.Google Scholar
CEP. 2016. Non-native species manual. Buenos Aires: Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 41 pp.Google Scholar
COMNAP. 2019. Review and update of the ‘Checklists for supply chain managers of National Antarctic Programs for the reduction in risk of transfer of non-native species’. ATCMXLII - WP50, 1–11 July 2019, Prague, Czech Republic. Buenos Aires: Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty.Google Scholar
Curry, C.H., McCarthy, J.S., Darragh, H.M., Wake, R.A., Todhunter, R. & Terris, J. 2002. Could tourist boots act as vectors for disease transmission in Antarctica? Journal of Travel Medicine, 9, 190–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Curry, C.H., McCarthy, J.S., Darragh, H.M., Wake, R.A., Churchill, S.E., Robins, A.M. & Lowen, R.J. 2005. Identification of an agent suitable for disinfecting boots of visitors to the Antarctic. Polar Record, 41, 39–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ernsting, G., Block, W., MacAlister, H. & Todd, C. 1995. The invasion of the carnivorous carabid beetle Trechisibus antarctica on South Georgia (sub-Antarctic) and its effect on the endemic herbivorous beetle Hydromedion spasutum. Oecologia, 103, 34–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everatt, M.J., Worland, M.R., Bale, J.S., Convey, P. & Hayward, S.A.L. 2012. Pre-adapted to the maritime Antarctic? - Rapid cold hardening of the midge, Eretmoptera murphyi. Journal of Insect Physiology, 58, 1104–1111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everatt, M.J., Worland, M.R., Bale, J.S., Convey, P. & Hayward, S.A.L. 2014a. Are the Antarctic dipteran, Eretmoptera murphyi, and Arctic collembolan, Megaphorura arctica, vulnerable to rising temperatures? Bulletin Entomology Research, 104, 494–503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everatt, M.J., Worland, M.R., Bale, J.S., Convey, P. & Hayward, S.A.L. 2014b. Can the Antarctic terrestrial midge, Eretmoptera murphyi, tolerate life in water? Ecological Entomology, 39, 732–735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frenot, Y., Chown, S.L., Whinam, J., Selkirk, P.M., Convey, P., Skotnicki, M. & Bergstrom, D.M. 2005. Biological invasions in the Antarctic: extent, impacts and implications. Biological Review, 80, 45–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenslade, P. & Convey, P. 2012. Exotic Collembola on subantarctic islands: pathways, origins and biology. Biological Invasions, 14, 405–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grimaldi, W., Seddon, P., Lyver, P., Nakagawa, S. & Tompkins, D. 2014. Infectious diseases of Antarctic penguins: current status and future threats. Polar Biology, 38, 591–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guan, J., Chan, M., Brooks, B.W. & Rohonczy, L. 2013. Influence of temperature and organic load on chemical disinfection of Geobacillus steareothermophilus spores, a surrogate for Bacillus anthracis. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research, 77, 100–104.Google ScholarPubMed
Heinrich, B. 1981. Ecological and evolutionary perspectives. In Heinrich, B., ed. Insect thermoregulation. New York: Wiley, 236–302.Google Scholar
Herńandez, A., Martró, E., Matas, L., Martin, M. & Ausina, V. 2000. Assessment of in-vitro efficacy of 1% Virkon® S against bacteria, fungi, viruses and spores by means of AFNOR guidelines. Journal of Hospital Infection, 46, 203–209.Google Scholar
Hughes, K.A. & Pertierra, L.R. 2016. Evaluation of non-native species policy development and implementation within the Antarctic Treaty area. Biological Conservation, 200, 149–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, K.A., Convey, P., Maslen, N. & Smith, R. 2010. Accidental transfer of non-native soil organisms into Antarctica on construction vehicles. Biological Invasions, 12, 875–891.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, K.A., Worland, M.R., Thorne, M. & Convey, P. 2013. The non-native chironomid Eretmoptera murphyi in Antarctica: erosion of the barriers to invasion. Biological Invasions, 15, 269–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, K.A., Pertierra, L.R., Molina-Montenegro, M. & Convey, P. 2015. Biological invasions in terrestrial Antarctica: what is the current status, and can we respond? Biodiversity and Conservation, 24, 1031–1055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IAATO. 2018. Guidelines: boot, clothing and equipment decontamination guidelines for small boat operations. Retrieved from https://iaato.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/IAATOBootandClothingDecontaminationPoster.pdf (accessed 17 July 2020).Google Scholar
Lebouvier, M., Laparie, M., Hulle, M., Marais, A., Cozic, Y., Lalouette, L., et al. 2012. The significance of the sub-Antarctic Kerguelen Islands for the assessment of the vulnerability of native communities to climate change, alien insect invasions and plant viruses. Biological Invasions, 13, 1195–1208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J.R., Raymond, B., Bracegirdle, T.J., Chadès, I., Fuller, R.A., Shaw, J.D. & Terauds, A. 2017. Climate change drives expansion of Antarctic ice-free habitat. Nature, 547, 49–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, L., Xie, B., Dong, C., Wang, M. & Liu, H. 2016. Can closed artificial ecosystem have an impact on insect microbial community? A case study of yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) Ecological Engineering, 86, 183–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, A.J. & Cole, R.A. 2008. Survival of the faucet snail after chemical disinfection, pH extremes, and heated water bath treatments. North American Journal of Fish Management, 28, 1597–1600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paetzold, S.C. & Davidson, J. 2011. Aquaculture fouling: efficacy of potassium monopersulphonate triple salt-based disinfectant (Virkon® S Aquatic) against Ciona intestinalis. Biofouling, 27, 655–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pertierra, L.R., Bartlett, J.C., Duffy, G., Vega, G.C., Hughes, K.A., Hayward, S.A.L., et al. 2019. Combining correlative and mechanistic niche models with human activity data to elucidate the invasive potential of a sub-Antarctic insect. Journal of Biogeography, 47, 658–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potocka, M. & Krzemińska, E. 2018. Trichocera maculipennis (Diptera) - an invasive species in Maritime Antarctica. PeerJ, 6, 10.7717/peerj.5408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pugh, P.J.A. 1994. Non-indigenous Acari of Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands. Zoological Journal of the Linnaean Society, 110, 207–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pugh, P.J.A. 2004. Biogeography of spiders (Araneae: Arachnida) on the islands of the Southern Ocean. Journal of Natural History, 38, 1461–1487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaeffer, V.C. 1914. Collembola, Siphonaptera, Diptera and Coleoptera of the South Georgia expedition. Brooklyn Museum Institute of Arts and Sciences Bulletin, 2, 90–94.Google Scholar
Stockton-Fiti, K.A. & Moffitt, C.M. 2017. Safety and efficacy of Virkon® aquatic as a control tool for invasive Molluscs in aquaculture. Aquaculture, 480, 71–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Volonterio, O., Ponce de León, R., Convey, P. & Krzeminska, E. 2013. First record of Trichoceridae (Diptera) in the maritime Antarctic. Polar Biology, 36, 1125–1131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, D., Boohene, C., Denning, S. & Stringham, S. 2008. Tank mixes: Consequences of using insecticide and disinfectant mixtures to reduce flies and bacteria. Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 17, 93–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar