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LANGUAGE AND DEMENTIA: SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2008

Heidi E. Hamilton
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Abstract

This review of sociolinguistic aspects of language and dementia focuses on studies that (1) examine naturally occurring language with attention to variation that relates to speakers' cognitive or sociocultural attributes or to dimensions of the communicative context, (2) provide a nuanced understanding of individuals with dementia or contexts of communication that may illuminate sociolinguistic analyses, or (3) call for sociolinguistic investigations to clarify or provide additional evidence for a particular finding outside of linguistics. Structured from the global to the local levels, the review begins with literature that frames the study of language and dementia from the societal or cultural perspective, focusing on public discourse relating to dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Studies that shed light on social activities and physical environments are addressed next as possible influences on the shape of the discourse. Finally, investigations of verbal and nonverbal aspects of discourse produced by and with individuals with dementia are reviewed. Ideas for future research are outlined along with a call for increased cross-disciplinary cooperation among researchers who work at the intersection of language, dementia, and society.

Type
Research Article
Information
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , Volume 28 , March 2008 , pp. 91 - 110
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

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References

ANNOTATED REFERENCES

Davis, B. H. (Ed.). (2005). Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, J., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. (Eds.). (2006). Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
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Basting, A. D. (2006). Creative storytelling and self-expression among people with dementia. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 180–194). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayles, K., & Kaszniak, A. (1987). Communication and cognition in normal aging and dementia. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterji, R. (2006). Normality and difference: Institutional classification and the constitution of subjectivity in a Dutch nursing home. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 218–239). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, L. (2006). Introduction: Thinking about dementia. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 1–19). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, B., & Harre, R. (1990). Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20, 43–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, B. H., & Bernstein, C. (2005). Talking in the here and now: Reference and politeness in Alzheimer conversation. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 60–86). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downs, M., Clare, L., & Mackenzie, J. (2006). Understandings of dementia: Exploratory models and their implications for the person with dementia and therapeutic effort. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 235–258). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Gallacher, J., Bayer, A., & Ben-Shlomo, Y. (2005). Commentary: Activity each day keeps dementia away: Does social interaction really preserve cognitive function? International Journal of Epidemiology [advance access May 23, 2005], 1–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gee, J. P. (1991). A linguistic approach to narrative. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1 (1), 15–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, H., Coupland, N., & Wiemann, J. M. (Eds.). (1990). Communication, health and the elderly. Manchester, England.: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Glei, D. A., Landa, D. A., Goldman, N., Chuang, Y.-L., Rodriguez, G., & Weinstein, M. (2005). Participating in social activities helps preserve cognitive function: An analysis of a longitudinal, population-based study of the elderly. International Journal of Epidemiology [advance access March 11, 2005], 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (1994b). Requests for clarification as evidence of pragmatic comprehension difficulty: The case of Alzheimer's disease. In Bloom, R. L., Obler, L. K., DeSanti, S., & Ehlich, J. S. (Eds.), Discourse analysis and applications: Studies in adult clinical populations (pp. 185–199). New York: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (1996). Intratextuality, intertextuality, and the construction of identity as patient in Alzheimer's disease. Text, 16 (1), 61–90.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (2000). Dealing with declining health in old age: Identity construction in the Oppen family letter exchange. In Peyton, J., Griffin, P., Wolfram, W., & Fasold, R. (Eds.), Language in action: New studies of language in society (pp. 599–610). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (2005). Epilogue: The prism, the soliloquy, the couch, and the dance: The evolving study of language and Alzheimer's disease. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 224–246). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (2008). Narrative as snapshot: Glimpses into the past in Alzheimer's disease. Narrative Inquiry 18 (1), 53–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harre, R., & van Langenhove, L.(Eds.). (1999). Positioning theory: Moral contexts of intentional action. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Ignatieff, M. (1999). Berlin in autumn: The philosopher in old age. With comments by Robert Alter and Michael Andre Bernstein. Doreen B. Townsend Center Occasional Papers, no. 16.Google Scholar
Johnstone, B. (2002). Discourse analysis. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., & Goral, M. (2008). Language and dementia: Neuropsychological aspects. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 28, this issue.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitwood, T. (1990). The dialectics of dementia: With particular reference to Alzheimer's disease. Ageing and Society, 10, 177–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitwood, T. (1997). Dementia reconsidered: The person comes first. Philadelphia: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Kontos, P. C. (2006). Embodied selfhood: An ethnographic exploration of Alzheimer's disease. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 195–217). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leibing, A. (2006). Divided gazes: Alzheimer's disease, the person within, and death in life. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 240–268). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Light, L. (1993). Language change in old age. In Blanken, G., Dittmann, J., Grimm, H., Marshall, J. C., & Wallesch, C. W. (Eds.), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: An international handbook (pp. 900–918). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Lindholm, C. (in press). Laughter, communication problems, and dementia. Communication and Medicine, 5.Google Scholar
Maclagan, M., & Mason, P. (2005). Bad times and good times: Lexical variation over time in Robbie Walters’ speech. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication, (pp.146–166). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
March, E. G., Wales, R., & Pattison, P. (2006). The uses of nouns and deixis in discourse production in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 19, 311–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, A. H. (2006). Coherence without facticity in dementia: The case of Mrs. Fine. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 157–179). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melvold, J. L., Au, R., Obler, L. K., & Albert, M. L. (1994). Language during aging and dementia. In Albert, M. L. & Knoefel, J. (Eds.), Clinical neurology of aging (2nd ed., pp. 329–46). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1964). An unpublished text by Maurice Merleau-Ponty: A prospectus of his work. In Edie, J. (Ed.), The primacy of perception. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Obler, L. (1981). Review of Le langage des dements by Luce Irigaray. Brain and Language 12, 375–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheimer, C. (2006). I am, thou art: Personal identity in dementia. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 193–204). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pope, C., & Ripich, D. N. (2005). Speak to me, listen to me: Ethnic and gender variations in talk and potential consequences in interactions for people with Alzheimer's disease. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 37–59). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Post, S. G. (1998). The fear of forgetfulness: A grassroots approach to an ethics of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical Ethics, 9, 71–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabinow, P. (2003). Anthropos today: Reflections on modern equipment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ramanathan, V. (1995). Narrative well-formedness in Alzheimer discourse: An interactional examination across settings. Journal of Pragmatics, 23, 395–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanathan-Abbott, V. (1995). Interactional differences in Alzheimer discourse. Language in Society, 23 (1), 31–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridge, S. G. M., Makoni, S., & Ridge, E. (2003). “I want to be like a human again”: Morbidity and retained ability in an Alzheimer sufferer. In Makoni, S. & Meinhof, U. H. (Eds.), AILA Review: African and Applied Linguistics, 16, 149–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, E. B., Spykerman, H., & Anas, A. P. 2005. Writers with dementia: The interplay among reading, writing, and personhood. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 190–198). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, E. B., Giles, H., Bartolucci, G., & Henwood, K. (1986). Psycholinguistic and social psychological components of communication by and with the elderly. Language and Communication, 6, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabat, S. R. (2006). Mind, meaning, and personhood in dementia: The effects of positioning. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 287–302). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to discourse analysis. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2003). Discourses in place: Language in the material world. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons-Mackie, N. N., & Damico, J. S. (1997). Reformulating the definition of compensatory strategies in aphasia. Aphasiology, 11 (8), 761–781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, L. (2006). Personhood and interpersonal communication in dementia. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 259–276). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
ten Have, P. (1999). Doing conversation analysis: A practical guide. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Vaihinger, H. (1924). The philosophy of “as if” (C. K. Ogden, Trans.). New York: Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
Zeisel, J., Silverstein, N. M., Hyde, J., Levkoff, S., Lawton, M. P., & Holmes, W. (2003). Environmental correlates to behavioral health outcomes in Alzheimer's special care units. Gerontologist, 43 (5), 697–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Appell, J., Kertesz, A., & Fisman, M. (1982). A study of language functioning in Alzheimer patients. Brain and Language, 17, 73–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basting, A. D. (2006). Creative storytelling and self-expression among people with dementia. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 180–194). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayles, K., & Kaszniak, A. (1987). Communication and cognition in normal aging and dementia. Boston: Little, Brown.Google Scholar
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterji, R. (2006). Normality and difference: Institutional classification and the constitution of subjectivity in a Dutch nursing home. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 218–239). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, L. (2006). Introduction: Thinking about dementia. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 1–19). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Davies, B., & Harre, R. (1990). Positioning: The discursive production of selves. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 20, 43–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, B. H., & Bernstein, C. (2005). Talking in the here and now: Reference and politeness in Alzheimer conversation. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 60–86). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downs, M., Clare, L., & Mackenzie, J. (2006). Understandings of dementia: Exploratory models and their implications for the person with dementia and therapeutic effort. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 235–258). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Fairclough, N. (1995). Media discourse. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
Gallacher, J., Bayer, A., & Ben-Shlomo, Y. (2005). Commentary: Activity each day keeps dementia away: Does social interaction really preserve cognitive function? International Journal of Epidemiology [advance access May 23, 2005], 1–2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gee, J. P. (1991). A linguistic approach to narrative. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1 (1), 15–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giles, H., Coupland, N., & Wiemann, J. M. (Eds.). (1990). Communication, health and the elderly. Manchester, England.: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Glei, D. A., Landa, D. A., Goldman, N., Chuang, Y.-L., Rodriguez, G., & Weinstein, M. (2005). Participating in social activities helps preserve cognitive function: An analysis of a longitudinal, population-based study of the elderly. International Journal of Epidemiology [advance access March 11, 2005], 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Goffman, E. (1967). Interaction ritual: Essays on face-to-face behavior. New York: Anchor Books.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (1994b). Requests for clarification as evidence of pragmatic comprehension difficulty: The case of Alzheimer's disease. In Bloom, R. L., Obler, L. K., DeSanti, S., & Ehlich, J. S. (Eds.), Discourse analysis and applications: Studies in adult clinical populations (pp. 185–199). New York: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (1996). Intratextuality, intertextuality, and the construction of identity as patient in Alzheimer's disease. Text, 16 (1), 61–90.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (2000). Dealing with declining health in old age: Identity construction in the Oppen family letter exchange. In Peyton, J., Griffin, P., Wolfram, W., & Fasold, R. (Eds.), Language in action: New studies of language in society (pp. 599–610). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.Google Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (2005). Epilogue: The prism, the soliloquy, the couch, and the dance: The evolving study of language and Alzheimer's disease. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 224–246). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, H. E. (2008). Narrative as snapshot: Glimpses into the past in Alzheimer's disease. Narrative Inquiry 18 (1), 53–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harre, R., & van Langenhove, L.(Eds.). (1999). Positioning theory: Moral contexts of intentional action. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar
Ignatieff, M. (1999). Berlin in autumn: The philosopher in old age. With comments by Robert Alter and Michael Andre Bernstein. Doreen B. Townsend Center Occasional Papers, no. 16.Google Scholar
Johnstone, B. (2002). Discourse analysis. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., & Goral, M. (2008). Language and dementia: Neuropsychological aspects. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 28, this issue.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitwood, T. (1990). The dialectics of dementia: With particular reference to Alzheimer's disease. Ageing and Society, 10, 177–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kitwood, T. (1997). Dementia reconsidered: The person comes first. Philadelphia: Open University Press.Google Scholar
Kontos, P. C. (2006). Embodied selfhood: An ethnographic exploration of Alzheimer's disease. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 195–217). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leibing, A. (2006). Divided gazes: Alzheimer's disease, the person within, and death in life. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 240–268). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Light, L. (1993). Language change in old age. In Blanken, G., Dittmann, J., Grimm, H., Marshall, J. C., & Wallesch, C. W. (Eds.), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: An international handbook (pp. 900–918). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Lindholm, C. (in press). Laughter, communication problems, and dementia. Communication and Medicine, 5.Google Scholar
Maclagan, M., & Mason, P. (2005). Bad times and good times: Lexical variation over time in Robbie Walters’ speech. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication, (pp.146–166). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
March, E. G., Wales, R., & Pattison, P. (2006). The uses of nouns and deixis in discourse production in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 19, 311–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLean, A. H. (2006). Coherence without facticity in dementia: The case of Mrs. Fine. In Leibing, A. & Cohen, L. (Eds.), Thinking about dementia: Culture, loss, and the anthropology of senility (pp. 157–179). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melvold, J. L., Au, R., Obler, L. K., & Albert, M. L. (1994). Language during aging and dementia. In Albert, M. L. & Knoefel, J. (Eds.), Clinical neurology of aging (2nd ed., pp. 329–46). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1964). An unpublished text by Maurice Merleau-Ponty: A prospectus of his work. In Edie, J. (Ed.), The primacy of perception. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar
Obler, L. (1981). Review of Le langage des dements by Luce Irigaray. Brain and Language 12, 375–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oppenheimer, C. (2006). I am, thou art: Personal identity in dementia. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 193–204). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pope, C., & Ripich, D. N. (2005). Speak to me, listen to me: Ethnic and gender variations in talk and potential consequences in interactions for people with Alzheimer's disease. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 37–59). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Post, S. G. (1998). The fear of forgetfulness: A grassroots approach to an ethics of Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical Ethics, 9, 71–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabinow, P. (2003). Anthropos today: Reflections on modern equipment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ramanathan, V. (1995). Narrative well-formedness in Alzheimer discourse: An interactional examination across settings. Journal of Pragmatics, 23, 395–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramanathan-Abbott, V. (1995). Interactional differences in Alzheimer discourse. Language in Society, 23 (1), 31–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ridge, S. G. M., Makoni, S., & Ridge, E. (2003). “I want to be like a human again”: Morbidity and retained ability in an Alzheimer sufferer. In Makoni, S. & Meinhof, U. H. (Eds.), AILA Review: African and Applied Linguistics, 16, 149–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, E. B., Spykerman, H., & Anas, A. P. 2005. Writers with dementia: The interplay among reading, writing, and personhood. In Davis, B. H. (Ed.), Alzheimer talk, text and context: Enhancing communication (pp. 190–198). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, E. B., Giles, H., Bartolucci, G., & Henwood, K. (1986). Psycholinguistic and social psychological components of communication by and with the elderly. Language and Communication, 6, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabat, S. R. (2006). Mind, meaning, and personhood in dementia: The effects of positioning. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 287–302). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to discourse analysis. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (2003). Discourses in place: Language in the material world. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simmons-Mackie, N. N., & Damico, J. S. (1997). Reformulating the definition of compensatory strategies in aphasia. Aphasiology, 11 (8), 761–781.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, L. (2006). Personhood and interpersonal communication in dementia. In Hughes, J. C., Louw, S. J., & Sabat, S. R. (Eds.), Dementia: Mind, meaning and the person (pp. 259–276). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
ten Have, P. (1999). Doing conversation analysis: A practical guide. London: Sage.Google Scholar
Vaihinger, H. (1924). The philosophy of “as if” (C. K. Ogden, Trans.). New York: Harcourt, Brace.Google Scholar
Zeisel, J., Silverstein, N. M., Hyde, J., Levkoff, S., Lawton, M. P., & Holmes, W. (2003). Environmental correlates to behavioral health outcomes in Alzheimer's special care units. Gerontologist, 43 (5), 697–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed