Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-04T15:13:42.582Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

LANGUAGE AND DEMENTIA: NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 March 2008

Daniel Kempler  and
Mira Goral
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article reviews recent evidence for the relationship between extralinguistic cognitive and language abilities in dementia. A survey of data from investigations of three dementia syndromes (Alzheimer's disease, semantic dementia and progressive nonfluent aphasia) reveals that, more often than not, deterioration of conceptual organization appears associated with lexical impairments, whereas impairments in executive function are associated with sentence- and discourse-level deficits. These connections between extralinguistic functions and language ability also emerge from the literature on cognitive reserve and bilingualism that investigates factors that delay the onset and possibly the progression of neuropsychological manifestation of dementia.

Type
Research Article
Information
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , Volume 28 , March 2008 , pp. 73 - 90
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2008

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ANNOTATED REFERENCES

Almor, A., Kempler, D., MacDonald, M. C., Andersen, E. S., & Tyler, L. K. (1999). Why do Alzheimer's patients have difficulty with pronouns? Working memory, semantics, and reference in comprehension and production in Alzheimer's disease. Brain and Language, 67, 202–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45, 459–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, M., Rhee, J., & Moore, P. (2005). Sentence processing in frontotemporal dementia. Cortex, 41, 764–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogers, T. T., Ivanoiu, A., Patterson, K., & Hodges, J. R. (2006). Semantic memory in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementias: A longitudinal study of 236 patients. Neuropsychology, 20, 319–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448–460.Google Scholar
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 242–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almor, A., MacDonald, M. C., Kempler, D., Andersen, E. S., & Tyler, L. K. (2001). Comprehension of long distance number agreement in probably Alzheimer's disease. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 35–63.Google Scholar
Altmann, L. J. P., Kempler, D., & Andersen, E. S. (2001). Speech errors in Alzheimer's disease: Reevaluating morphosyntactic preservation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1069–1082.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aronoff, J. M., Gonnerman, L. M., Almor, A., Arunachalam, S., Kempler, D., & Andersen, E. S. (2006). Information content versus relational knowledge: Semantic deficits in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia, 44, 21–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ash, S., Moore, P., Antani, S., McCawlet, G., Work, M., & Grossman, M. (2006). Trying to tell a tale: Discourse impairments in progressive aphasia and frontotemporal dementia. Neurology, 66, 1405–1413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Astell, A. J., & Harley, T. A. (1998). Naming problems in dementia: Semantic or lexical? Aphasiology, 12, 357–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Astell, A. J., & Harley, T. A. (2002). Accessing semantic knowledge in dementia: Evidence from a word definition task. Brain and Language, 82, 312–327.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19 (2), 290–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonilla, J. L., & Johnson, M. K. (1995). Semantic space in Alzheimer's disease patients. Neuropsychology, 9, 345–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, S. B., Highley, A. P., & Thompson, J. L. (1998). Discourse in fluent aphasia and Alzheimer's disease: Linguistic and pragmatic considerations. Journal of Neurolinguistics: Special Issue, 11, 55–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. G., Charuvastra, A., Miller, B. L., Shapira, J. S., & Mendez, M. F. (2005). Fluent versus nonfluent primary progressive aphasia: A comparison of clinical and functional neuroimaging features. Brain and Language, 94, 54–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crutch, S. J., & Warrington, E. K. (2006). Partial knowledge of abstract words in patients with cortical degenerative conditions. Neuropsychology, 20, 482–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Santi, S., Obler, L. K., Sabo-Abrahamson, H., & Goldberger, J. (1990). Discourse abilities and deficits in bilingual dementia. In Joanette, Y. & Brownell, H. H. (Eds.), Discourse ability and brain damage: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Filley, C. M., Ramsberger, G., Menn, L., Wu, J., Reid, B. Y., & Reid, A. L. (2006). Primary progressive aphasia in a bilingual woman. Neurocase, 12, 296–299.Google Scholar
Friedland, D., & Miller, N. (1999). Language mixing in bilingual speakers with Alzheimer's dementia: A conversation analysis approach. Aphasiology, 13, 427–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, A., & Mathuranath, P. S. (2005). Primary progressive aphasia: A comparative study of progressive nonfluent aphasia and semantic dementia. Neurology India, 53, 162–166.Google Scholar
Giffard, B., Desgranges, B., & Eustache, F. (2005). Semantic memory disorders in Alzheimer's disease: Clues from semantic priming effects. Current Alzheimer Research, 2, 425–434.Google Scholar
Gonnerman, L. M., Andersen, E. S., Devlin, J. T., Kempler, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1997). Double dissociation of semantic categories in Alzheimer's disease. Brain and Language, 57, 254–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 67–81.Google Scholar
Grossman, M., & Ash, S. (2004) Primary progressive aphasia: A review. Neurocase, 10, 3–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, M., D'Esposito, M., Hughes, E., Onishi, K., Biassou, N., White-Devine, T., et al. (1996). Language comprehension profiles in Alzheimer's disease, multi-infarct dementia, and frontotemporal degeneration. Neurology, 47, 183–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, M., Koenig, P., DeVita, C., Glosser, G., Moore, P., Gee, J., et al. (2003). Neural basis for verb processing in Alzheimer's disease: An fMRI study. Neuropsychology, 17, 658–674.Google Scholar
Grossman, M., & Moore, P. (2005). A longitudinal study of sentence comprehension difficulty in primary progressive aphasia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 76, 644–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halpern, C. H., Glosser, G., Clark, R., Gee, J., Moore, P., Dennis, K., et al. (2004). Dissociation of naming nouns versus verbs in primary progressive aphasia. Neurology, 62, 1163–1169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodges, J. R., Bozeat, S., Lambon, R. M. A., Patterson, K., & Spatt, J. (2000). The role of conceptual knowledge in object use evidence from semantic dementia. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 123, 1913–1925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodges, J. R., & Patterson, K. (1996). Nonfluent progressive aphasia and semantic dementia: A comparative neuropsychological study. Journal of International Neurological Society, 2, 511–524.Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, K., & Stroud, C. (1989). Bilingualism in Alzheimer's dementia: Two case studies. In Hyltenstam, K. & Obler, L. K. (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Aspects of acquisition, maturity, and loss (pp. 202–206). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavé, G. (2003). Morphology in picture descriptions provided by persons with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 341–352.Google Scholar
Kavé, G., Leonard, C., Cupit, J., & Rochon, E. (2007). Structurally well-formed narrative production in the face of severe conceptual deterioration: A longitudinal case study of a woman with semantic dementia. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 161–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavé, G., & Levy, Y. (2003). Sensitivity to gender, person, and tense inflection by persons with Alzheimer's disease. Brain and Language, 87, 267–277.Google Scholar
Kemper, S., Greiner, L. H., Marquiz, J. G., Prenovost, K., & Mitzner, T. L. (2001). Language decline across the life span: Findings from the nun study. Psychology and Aging, 16, 227–239.Google Scholar
Kemper, S., LaBarge, E., Ferraro, F. R., Cheung, H., & Storandt, M. (1993). On the preservation of syntax in Alzheimer's disease. Evidence from written sentences. Archives of Neurology, 50, 81–86.Google Scholar
Kempler, D. (1988) Lexical and pantomime abilities in Alzheimer's disease. Aphasiology, 2, 147–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kempler, D. (2005). Neurocognitive disorders in aging. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., Almor, A., Tyler, L. K., Andersen, E. S., & MacDonald, M. C. (1998). Sentence comprehension deficits in Alzheimer's disease: A comparison of off-line vs. on-line sentence processing. Brain and Language, 64, 297–316.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., Curtiss, S., & Jackson, C. (1987). Syntactic preservation in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 30, 343–350.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., Metter, E. J., Riege, W. H., Jackson, C. A., Benson, D. F., & Hanson, W. R. (1990). Slowly progressive aphasia: Three cases with language, memory, CT and PET data. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Neuropsychiatry, 53, 987–993.Google Scholar
Kertesz, A., Davidson, W., McCabe, P., Takagi, K., & Munoz, D. (2003). Primary progressive aphasia: Diagnosis, varieties, evolution. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 710–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irigaray, L. (1967). Psycholinguistic approach of the language of the demented. Neuropsychologia, 5, 25–52.Google Scholar
Laine, M., Laakso, M., Vuorinen, E., & Rinne, J. (1998). Coherence and informativeness of discourse in two dementia types. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 11, 79–87.Google Scholar
Manly, J. J., Schupf, N., Tang, M., & Stern, Y. (2005). Cognitive decline and literacy among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 18, 213–217.Google Scholar
Manly, J. J., Touradji, P., Tang, M., & Stern, Y. (2003). Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 5, 680–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendez, M. F., & Cummings, J. L. (2003). Dementia: A clinical approach. Philadelphia: Butterworth-Heinemann.Google Scholar
Mendez, M. F., Perryman, K. M., Pontón, M. O., & Cummings, J. L. (1999). Bilingualism and dementia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 11, 411–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendez, M. F., Saghafi, S., & Clark, D. G. (2004). Semantic dementia in multilingual patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 16, 381.Google Scholar
Mesulam, M. M. (1982). Slowly progressive aphasia without generalized dementia. Annals of Neurology, 11, 592–598.Google Scholar
Ober, B. A. (2002). TR and non-RT methodology for semantic priming research with Alzheimer's disease patients: A critical review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24, 883–912.Google Scholar
Ober, B. A., Jagust, W. J., & Koss, E. (1991). Visuoconstructive performance and regional cerebral glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 752–772.Google Scholar
Ober, B. A., & Shenaut, G. K. (1999). Well-organized conceptual domains in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 676–684.Google Scholar
Peelle, J. E., Cooke, A., Moore, P., Vesely, L., & Grossman, M. (2007). Syntactic and thematic components of sentence processing in progressive nonfluent aphasia and nonaphasic frontotemporal dementia. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20 (6), 482–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perneczky, R., Diehl-Schmid, J., Pohl, C., Drzezga, A., & Kurz, A. (2007). Non-fluent progressive aphasia: Cerebral metabolic patterns and brain reserve. Brain Research, 1133, 178–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, C., & Grossman, M. (2005). Verb agreements during on-line sentence processing in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. Brain and Language, 94, 217–232.Google Scholar
Ripich, D. N., & Terrell, B. Y. (1988). Patterns of discourse cohesion and coherence in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 53, 8–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rochon, E., Kavé, G., Cupit, J., Jokel, R., & Winocur, G. (2004). Sentence comprehension in semantic dementia: A longitudinal case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 21, 317–330.Google Scholar
Rochon, E., Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (2000). The relationship between measures of working memory and sentence comprehension in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 395–414.Google Scholar
Rogalski, E., & Mesulam, M. (2007). An update on primary progressive aphasia. Currently Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 7, 388–392.Google Scholar
Salvatierra, J., Rosselli, M., Acevedo, A., & Duara, R. (2007). Verbal fluency in bilingual Spanish/English Alzheimer's disease patients. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 22, 190–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarmeas, N., Albert, S. M., Manly, J. J., & Stern, Y. J. (2006). Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 77, 308–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shenaut, G. K., & Ober, B. A. (1996). Methodological control of semantic priming in Alzheimer's disease. Psychology and Aging, 11, 443–448.Google Scholar
Small, J. A., Andersen, E. S., & Kempler, D. (1997). Effects of working memory capacity on understanding rate-altered speech. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 4, 126–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. X., & Tsai, W. Y. (1999). Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? Neurology, 53, 1942–1947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, C. K., Ballard, K. J., Trait, M. E., Weintraub, S., & Mesulam, M. (1997). Patterns of language decline in non-fluent primary progressive aphasia. Aphasiology, 11, 297–331.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and dementia: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36, 441–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verfaellie, M., & Giovanello, K. S. (2006). Conceptual priming in semantic dementia: A window into the cognitive and neural basis of conceptual implicit memory. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 23, 606–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vesely, L., Bonner, M. F., Reilly, J., & Grossman, M. (2007). Free association in semantic dementia: The importance of being abstract. Brain and Language, 103, 154–155.Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. (1975). The selective impairment of semantic memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27, 635–657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weintraub, S., Rubin, N. P., & Mesulam, M. M. (1990). Primary progressive aphasia. Longitudinal course, neuropsychological profile, and language features. Archives of Neurology, 47, 1329–1335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wicklund, A. H., Johnson, N., & Weintraub, S. (2004). Preservation of reasoning in primary progressive aphasia: Further differentiation from Alzheimer's disease and the behavioral presentation of frontotemporal dementia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 347–355.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. S., Fleischman, D. A., Myers, R. A., Bennet, D. A., Bienias, J. L., Gilley, D. W., et al. (2004). Premorbid proneness to distress and episodic memory impairment in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 75, 191–195.Google Scholar
Zahn, R., Buechert, M., Overmans, J., Talazko, J., Specht, K., Ko, C. W., et al. (2005). Mapping of temporal and parietal cortex in progressive nonfluent aphasia and Alzheimer's disease using chemical shift imaging, voxel-based morphometry and positron emission tomography. Psychiatry Research, 140, 115–131.Google Scholar
Zakzanis, K. K. (1999). The neuropsychological signature of primary progressive aphasia. Brain and Language, 70, 70–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 242–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almor, A., MacDonald, M. C., Kempler, D., Andersen, E. S., & Tyler, L. K. (2001). Comprehension of long distance number agreement in probably Alzheimer's disease. Language and Cognitive Processes, 16, 35–63.Google Scholar
Altmann, L. J. P., Kempler, D., & Andersen, E. S. (2001). Speech errors in Alzheimer's disease: Reevaluating morphosyntactic preservation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1069–1082.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aronoff, J. M., Gonnerman, L. M., Almor, A., Arunachalam, S., Kempler, D., & Andersen, E. S. (2006). Information content versus relational knowledge: Semantic deficits in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia, 44, 21–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ash, S., Moore, P., Antani, S., McCawlet, G., Work, M., & Grossman, M. (2006). Trying to tell a tale: Discourse impairments in progressive aphasia and frontotemporal dementia. Neurology, 66, 1405–1413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Astell, A. J., & Harley, T. A. (1998). Naming problems in dementia: Semantic or lexical? Aphasiology, 12, 357–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Astell, A. J., & Harley, T. A. (2002). Accessing semantic knowledge in dementia: Evidence from a word definition task. Brain and Language, 82, 312–327.Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19 (2), 290–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonilla, J. L., & Johnson, M. K. (1995). Semantic space in Alzheimer's disease patients. Neuropsychology, 9, 345–353.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chapman, S. B., Highley, A. P., & Thompson, J. L. (1998). Discourse in fluent aphasia and Alzheimer's disease: Linguistic and pragmatic considerations. Journal of Neurolinguistics: Special Issue, 11, 55–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, D. G., Charuvastra, A., Miller, B. L., Shapira, J. S., & Mendez, M. F. (2005). Fluent versus nonfluent primary progressive aphasia: A comparison of clinical and functional neuroimaging features. Brain and Language, 94, 54–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crutch, S. J., & Warrington, E. K. (2006). Partial knowledge of abstract words in patients with cortical degenerative conditions. Neuropsychology, 20, 482–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Santi, S., Obler, L. K., Sabo-Abrahamson, H., & Goldberger, J. (1990). Discourse abilities and deficits in bilingual dementia. In Joanette, Y. & Brownell, H. H. (Eds.), Discourse ability and brain damage: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Filley, C. M., Ramsberger, G., Menn, L., Wu, J., Reid, B. Y., & Reid, A. L. (2006). Primary progressive aphasia in a bilingual woman. Neurocase, 12, 296–299.Google Scholar
Friedland, D., & Miller, N. (1999). Language mixing in bilingual speakers with Alzheimer's dementia: A conversation analysis approach. Aphasiology, 13, 427–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, A., & Mathuranath, P. S. (2005). Primary progressive aphasia: A comparative study of progressive nonfluent aphasia and semantic dementia. Neurology India, 53, 162–166.Google Scholar
Giffard, B., Desgranges, B., & Eustache, F. (2005). Semantic memory disorders in Alzheimer's disease: Clues from semantic priming effects. Current Alzheimer Research, 2, 425–434.Google Scholar
Gonnerman, L. M., Andersen, E. S., Devlin, J. T., Kempler, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (1997). Double dissociation of semantic categories in Alzheimer's disease. Brain and Language, 57, 254–279.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 67–81.Google Scholar
Grossman, M., & Ash, S. (2004) Primary progressive aphasia: A review. Neurocase, 10, 3–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, M., D'Esposito, M., Hughes, E., Onishi, K., Biassou, N., White-Devine, T., et al. (1996). Language comprehension profiles in Alzheimer's disease, multi-infarct dementia, and frontotemporal degeneration. Neurology, 47, 183–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, M., Koenig, P., DeVita, C., Glosser, G., Moore, P., Gee, J., et al. (2003). Neural basis for verb processing in Alzheimer's disease: An fMRI study. Neuropsychology, 17, 658–674.Google Scholar
Grossman, M., & Moore, P. (2005). A longitudinal study of sentence comprehension difficulty in primary progressive aphasia. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 76, 644–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Halpern, C. H., Glosser, G., Clark, R., Gee, J., Moore, P., Dennis, K., et al. (2004). Dissociation of naming nouns versus verbs in primary progressive aphasia. Neurology, 62, 1163–1169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodges, J. R., Bozeat, S., Lambon, R. M. A., Patterson, K., & Spatt, J. (2000). The role of conceptual knowledge in object use evidence from semantic dementia. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, 123, 1913–1925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodges, J. R., & Patterson, K. (1996). Nonfluent progressive aphasia and semantic dementia: A comparative neuropsychological study. Journal of International Neurological Society, 2, 511–524.Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, K., & Stroud, C. (1989). Bilingualism in Alzheimer's dementia: Two case studies. In Hyltenstam, K. & Obler, L. K. (Eds.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Aspects of acquisition, maturity, and loss (pp. 202–206). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavé, G. (2003). Morphology in picture descriptions provided by persons with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 341–352.Google Scholar
Kavé, G., Leonard, C., Cupit, J., & Rochon, E. (2007). Structurally well-formed narrative production in the face of severe conceptual deterioration: A longitudinal case study of a woman with semantic dementia. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20, 161–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kavé, G., & Levy, Y. (2003). Sensitivity to gender, person, and tense inflection by persons with Alzheimer's disease. Brain and Language, 87, 267–277.Google Scholar
Kemper, S., Greiner, L. H., Marquiz, J. G., Prenovost, K., & Mitzner, T. L. (2001). Language decline across the life span: Findings from the nun study. Psychology and Aging, 16, 227–239.Google Scholar
Kemper, S., LaBarge, E., Ferraro, F. R., Cheung, H., & Storandt, M. (1993). On the preservation of syntax in Alzheimer's disease. Evidence from written sentences. Archives of Neurology, 50, 81–86.Google Scholar
Kempler, D. (1988) Lexical and pantomime abilities in Alzheimer's disease. Aphasiology, 2, 147–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kempler, D. (2005). Neurocognitive disorders in aging. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., Almor, A., Tyler, L. K., Andersen, E. S., & MacDonald, M. C. (1998). Sentence comprehension deficits in Alzheimer's disease: A comparison of off-line vs. on-line sentence processing. Brain and Language, 64, 297–316.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., Curtiss, S., & Jackson, C. (1987). Syntactic preservation in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 30, 343–350.Google Scholar
Kempler, D., Metter, E. J., Riege, W. H., Jackson, C. A., Benson, D. F., & Hanson, W. R. (1990). Slowly progressive aphasia: Three cases with language, memory, CT and PET data. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Neuropsychiatry, 53, 987–993.Google Scholar
Kertesz, A., Davidson, W., McCabe, P., Takagi, K., & Munoz, D. (2003). Primary progressive aphasia: Diagnosis, varieties, evolution. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 710–719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irigaray, L. (1967). Psycholinguistic approach of the language of the demented. Neuropsychologia, 5, 25–52.Google Scholar
Laine, M., Laakso, M., Vuorinen, E., & Rinne, J. (1998). Coherence and informativeness of discourse in two dementia types. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 11, 79–87.Google Scholar
Manly, J. J., Schupf, N., Tang, M., & Stern, Y. (2005). Cognitive decline and literacy among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 18, 213–217.Google Scholar
Manly, J. J., Touradji, P., Tang, M., & Stern, Y. (2003). Literacy and memory decline among ethnically diverse elders. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 5, 680–690.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendez, M. F., & Cummings, J. L. (2003). Dementia: A clinical approach. Philadelphia: Butterworth-Heinemann.Google Scholar
Mendez, M. F., Perryman, K. M., Pontón, M. O., & Cummings, J. L. (1999). Bilingualism and dementia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 11, 411–412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendez, M. F., Saghafi, S., & Clark, D. G. (2004). Semantic dementia in multilingual patients. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 16, 381.Google Scholar
Mesulam, M. M. (1982). Slowly progressive aphasia without generalized dementia. Annals of Neurology, 11, 592–598.Google Scholar
Ober, B. A. (2002). TR and non-RT methodology for semantic priming research with Alzheimer's disease patients: A critical review. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 24, 883–912.Google Scholar
Ober, B. A., Jagust, W. J., & Koss, E. (1991). Visuoconstructive performance and regional cerebral glucose metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 13, 752–772.Google Scholar
Ober, B. A., & Shenaut, G. K. (1999). Well-organized conceptual domains in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 5, 676–684.Google Scholar
Peelle, J. E., Cooke, A., Moore, P., Vesely, L., & Grossman, M. (2007). Syntactic and thematic components of sentence processing in progressive nonfluent aphasia and nonaphasic frontotemporal dementia. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20 (6), 482–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perneczky, R., Diehl-Schmid, J., Pohl, C., Drzezga, A., & Kurz, A. (2007). Non-fluent progressive aphasia: Cerebral metabolic patterns and brain reserve. Brain Research, 1133, 178–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, C., & Grossman, M. (2005). Verb agreements during on-line sentence processing in Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. Brain and Language, 94, 217–232.Google Scholar
Ripich, D. N., & Terrell, B. Y. (1988). Patterns of discourse cohesion and coherence in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 53, 8–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rochon, E., Kavé, G., Cupit, J., Jokel, R., & Winocur, G. (2004). Sentence comprehension in semantic dementia: A longitudinal case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 21, 317–330.Google Scholar
Rochon, E., Waters, G. S., & Caplan, D. (2000). The relationship between measures of working memory and sentence comprehension in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43, 395–414.Google Scholar
Rogalski, E., & Mesulam, M. (2007). An update on primary progressive aphasia. Currently Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 7, 388–392.Google Scholar
Salvatierra, J., Rosselli, M., Acevedo, A., & Duara, R. (2007). Verbal fluency in bilingual Spanish/English Alzheimer's disease patients. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias, 22, 190–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarmeas, N., Albert, S. M., Manly, J. J., & Stern, Y. J. (2006). Education and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 77, 308–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shenaut, G. K., & Ober, B. A. (1996). Methodological control of semantic priming in Alzheimer's disease. Psychology and Aging, 11, 443–448.Google Scholar
Small, J. A., Andersen, E. S., & Kempler, D. (1997). Effects of working memory capacity on understanding rate-altered speech. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 4, 126–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. X., & Tsai, W. Y. (1999). Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation: Cognitive reserve? Neurology, 53, 1942–1947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, C. K., Ballard, K. J., Trait, M. E., Weintraub, S., & Mesulam, M. (1997). Patterns of language decline in non-fluent primary progressive aphasia. Aphasiology, 11, 297–331.Google Scholar
Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006). Brain reserve and dementia: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36, 441–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verfaellie, M., & Giovanello, K. S. (2006). Conceptual priming in semantic dementia: A window into the cognitive and neural basis of conceptual implicit memory. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 23, 606–620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vesely, L., Bonner, M. F., Reilly, J., & Grossman, M. (2007). Free association in semantic dementia: The importance of being abstract. Brain and Language, 103, 154–155.Google Scholar
Warrington, E. K. (1975). The selective impairment of semantic memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27, 635–657.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weintraub, S., Rubin, N. P., & Mesulam, M. M. (1990). Primary progressive aphasia. Longitudinal course, neuropsychological profile, and language features. Archives of Neurology, 47, 1329–1335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wicklund, A. H., Johnson, N., & Weintraub, S. (2004). Preservation of reasoning in primary progressive aphasia: Further differentiation from Alzheimer's disease and the behavioral presentation of frontotemporal dementia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 26, 347–355.Google Scholar
Wilson, R. S., Fleischman, D. A., Myers, R. A., Bennet, D. A., Bienias, J. L., Gilley, D. W., et al. (2004). Premorbid proneness to distress and episodic memory impairment in Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 75, 191–195.Google Scholar
Zahn, R., Buechert, M., Overmans, J., Talazko, J., Specht, K., Ko, C. W., et al. (2005). Mapping of temporal and parietal cortex in progressive nonfluent aphasia and Alzheimer's disease using chemical shift imaging, voxel-based morphometry and positron emission tomography. Psychiatry Research, 140, 115–131.Google Scholar
Zakzanis, K. K. (1999). The neuropsychological signature of primary progressive aphasia. Brain and Language, 70, 70–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed