Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-05T18:34:55.489Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Awareness and Second Language Acquisition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 November 2008

Richard Schmidt
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

One very active research tradition in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) attempts to establish causal relationships between environmental factors and learning. These include the type and quantity of input, instruction and feedback, and the interactional context of learning (Larsen-Freeman and Long 1991). A second very influential line of research and theory in SLA that came to fruition during the 1980s investigates the possible role of universal grammar (UG) in SLA (Eubank 1991b, White 1989). In the Chomskyan tradition, UG refers not to properties of language as the external object of learning but to innate properties of mind that direct the course of primary language acquisition. One question asked within this tradition has been whether or not second language learners still “have access” to UG, but it is assumed that UG principles are not accessible to learner awareness for any kind of conscious analysis of input. It is possible that SLA is the result of UG (a deep internal factor) acting upon input (an external factor), as proposed by White (1989), but what seems to be left out of such an account is the role of the learner's conscious mental processes.

Type
The Role of the Language Learner
Information
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics , Volume 13 , March 1992 , pp. 206 - 226
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

UNANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allwright, R. L. 1984. Why don't learners learn what teachers teach? The interaction hypothesis. In Singleton, D. M. and Little, D. G. (eds.) Language learning informal and informal contexts. Dublin: IRAAL. 3–18.Google Scholar
Altman, R. 1990. Accounting for successful vocabulary development through learner introspection. Paper presented at the AILA Ninth World Congress of Applied Linguistics. Thessaloniki, Greece, April 1990.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. 1985. Cognitive psychology and its implications, 3rd ed.New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
Baars, B. J. 1988. A cognitive theory of consciousness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bardovi-Harlig, K. 1987. Markedness and salience in second language acquisition. Language Learning. 37.385–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bechtel, W. and Abrahamsen, A.. 1991. Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bootzin, R. R., Kihlstrom, J. K. and Schachter, D. L. (eds.) 1990. Sleep and cognition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowerman, M. 1987. Commentary: Mechanisms of language acquisition. In MacWhinney, B. (ed.) Mechanisms of language acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 443–466.Google Scholar
Braidi, S. M. 1988. Review of J. Liceras, Linguistic theory and second language acquisition: The Spanish nonnative grammar of English speakers. Applied Psycholinguistics. 9.428–433.Google Scholar
Bransdorfer, R. 1992. Testing the role of communicative value in input processing. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics. Seattle, WA, March 1992.Google Scholar
Brookes, L. R. and Vokey, J. R.. 1991. Abstract analogies and abstracted grammars: Comments on Reber (1989) and Mathews, et al. (1989). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 120.316–323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cadierno, T. 1992. Input processing in SLA: An experiment in explicit instruction. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics. Seattle, WA, March 1992.Google Scholar
Chaudron, C. 1985. Intake: On models and methods for discovering learners' processing of input. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 7.1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chomsky, N. 1969. Linguistics and philosophy. In Hook, S. (ed.) Language and philosophy. New York: New York University Press. 51–94.Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. 1991. Consciousness explained. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar
Dennett, D. C. and Kinsbourne, M.. 1992. Time and the observer: The where and when of consciousness in the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 15.183–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dienes, Z., Broadbent, D. and Berry, D.. 1991. Implicit and explicit knowledge bases in artificial grammar learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 17.875–887.Google ScholarPubMed
Ellis, N. Forthcoming. Implicit and explicit factors in second language learning: Interdisciplinary perspectives. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. 1990. Instructed second language acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Ellis, R. 1992. Consciousness-raising, second language acquisition and the structural syllabus. Paper presented at the 26th Annual TESOL Convention. Vancouver, BC, March 1992.Google Scholar
Eubank, L. 1991a. Introduction. In Eubank, L. (ed.) Point counterpoint: Universal grammar in the second language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 1–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eubank, L. (ed.) 1991b. Point counterpoint: Universal grammar in the second language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fotos, S. 1992. Consciousness raising: Grammar task performance versus formal instruction. Paper presented at the 26th Annual TESOL Convention. Vancouver, BC, March 1992.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G. 1992. New look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist. 47.766–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartman, M., Knopman, D. S. and Nissen, M. J.. 1989. Implicit learning of new verbal associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 15.1070–1082.Google ScholarPubMed
Hayes, N. A. and Broadbent, D. E.. 1988. Two modes of learning for interactive tasks. Cognition. 28.249–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hulstijn, J. 1992. Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning. In Arnaud, P. and Béjoint, H. (eds.) Vocabulary and applied linguistics. London: Macmillan. 113–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackendoff, R. 1987. Consciousness and the computational mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
James, C. and Garrett, P. P. (eds.) 1991. Language awareness in the classroom. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Joordens, S. and Merikle, P. M.. 1992. False recognition and perception without awareness. Memory and Cognition. 20.151–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krashen, S. D. 1985. The input hypothesis. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Krashen, S. D. 1989. We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal. 73.440–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D. and Long, M.. 1991. An introduction to second language acquisition research. Essex, UK: Longman.Google Scholar
Lewicki, P. and Hill, T.. 1989. On the status of nonconscious processes in human cognition: Comment on Reber. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 118.239–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liceras, J. 1986. Linguistic theory and second language acquisition: The Spanish nonnative grammar of English speakers. Tübingen: Gunter Narr.Google Scholar
Logan, G. D. 1988. Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review. 95.492–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, M. H. 1991. Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching. In deBot, K., Ginsberg, R. B. and Kramsch, C. (eds.) Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 39–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Long, M. H. Forthcoming a. The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds.) Handbook of research on language acquisition. Volume 2: Second language acquisition. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Long, M. H. Forthcoming b. Task-based language teaching. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.Google Scholar
Loritz, D. L. 1991. Cerebral and cerebellar models of language learning. Applied Linguistics. 12.298–318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loschky, L. and Bley-Vroman, R.. 1990. Creating structure based communication tasks for second language development. University of Hawaii Working Papers in ESL. 9.161–212.Google Scholar
Mangubhai, F. 1991. The processing behaviors of adult second language learners and their relationship to second language proficiency. Applied Linguistics.12.268–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mathews, R. C., Buss, R. R., Stanley, W. B., Blanchard-Fields, W. B., Cho, J. R. and Druhan, B.. 1989. Role of implicit and explicit processes in learning from examples: A synergistic effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 15.1083–1100.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, B. 1987. Theories of second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar
McLaughlin, B. 1990a. Restructuring. Applied Linguistics. 11.113–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, B. 1990b. “Conscious” versus “unconscious” learning. TESOL Quarterly. 24.617–634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Medin, D. L. and Ross, B. H.. 1990. The specific character of abstract thought: Categorization, problem solving, and induction. In Sternberg, R. J. (ed.) Advances in the psychology of human intelligence, Volume 5. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 189–224.Google Scholar
Merikle, P. M. 1988. Subliminal auditory messages: An evaluation. Psychology and Marketing. 5.355–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moore, T. E. (ed.) 1988. Subliminal influences in marketing. [Special issue of Psychology and Marketing. 5.4.]Google Scholar
Morgan, J. L., Meier, R. P. and Newport, E. L.. 1987. Structural packaging in the input to language learning: Contributions of prosodic and morphological marking of phrases to the acquisition of language. Cognitive Psychology. 19.498–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Grady, W. 1991. Language acquisition and the “pro-drop” phenomenon: A response to Hilles. In Eubank, L. (ed.) Point counterpoint: Universal grammar in the second language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 339–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perruchet, P. and Amorim, M-A.. 1992. Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 18.785–800.Google ScholarPubMed
Perruchet, P. and Pacteau, C.. 1990. Synthetic grammar learning: Implicit rule abstraction or explicit fragmentary knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 119.264–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perruchet, P., Amorim, M-A. and Pacteau, C.. 1991. Implicit acquisition of abstract knowledge about artificial grammar: Some methodological and conceptual issues. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 120.112–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pica, T. 1991. Do second language learners need negotiation? Penn Working Papers in Educational Linguistics. 7.1–35.Google Scholar
Pica, T. 1992. The textual outcomes of native speaker—non-native speaker negotiation: What do they reveal about second language learning? In Kramsch, C. and McConnel-Ginet, S. (eds.) Text and context: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on language study. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. 198–237.Google Scholar
Pintrich, P. 1989. The dynamic interplay of student motivation and cognition in the college classroom. In Maehr, M. and Ames, C. (eds.) Motivation enhancing environments. Orlando: Academic Press. 117–160. [Advances in motivation and achievement, Volume 6.]Google Scholar
Reber, A. 1989. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 118.219–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reber, A. 1992. The cognitive unconscious: An evolutionary perspective. Consciousness and Cognition, 1.93–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutherford, W. 1987. Second language grammar: Learning and teaching. London: Longman.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics. 11.129–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidt, R. In press. Consciousness, learning, and interlanguage pragmatics. In Kasper, G. and Blum-Kulka, S. (eds.) Interlanguage pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. and Frota, S. N.. 1986. Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese. In Day, R. (ed.) Talking to learn: Conversation in second language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. 237–326.Google Scholar
Scovel, T. 1991. Attention, apperception, awareness, and acquisition. Paper given at the Thai TESOL Eleventh Annual Convention. Bangkok, January 1991.Google Scholar
Searle, J. R. 1990. Consciousness, explanatory inversion, and cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 13.585–596.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Servan-Schreiber, E. and Anderson, J. R.. 1990. Learning artificial grammars with competitive chunking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 16.592–608.Google Scholar
Sharwood Smith, M. 1981. Consciousness raising and the second language learner. Applied Linguistics. 2.159–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skehan, P. 1992. Second language acquisition strategies and task-based learning. Thames Valley University Working Papers in English Language Teaching. 1.178–208.Google Scholar
Slimani, A. 1987. The teaching-learning relationship: Learning opportunities and learning outcomes. Lancaster, UK: Lancaster University. Ph.D. diss.Google Scholar
Slimani, A. 1992. Evaluation of classroom interaction. In Alderson, J. C. and Beretta, A. (eds.) Evaluating second language education. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 197–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorace, A. 1991. Incomplete vs divergent representations of unaccusativity in non-native grammars of Italian. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum. Los Angeles, March 1991.Google Scholar
Swain, M. 1991. French immersion and its offshoots: Getting two for one. In Freed, B. F. (ed.) Foreign language acquisition research and the classroom. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath. 91–103.Google Scholar
Tarone, E. 1989. Accounting for style shifting in interlanguage. In Gass, S., Madden, C., Preston, D. and Selinker, L. (eds.) Variation in second language acquisition. Psycholinguistic issues. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters. 13–21.Google Scholar
Terrell, T. D. 1991. The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach. Modern Language Journal. 75.52–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Lier, L. 1991. Inside the classroom: Learning processes and teaching procedures. Applied Language Learning. 2.29–68.Google Scholar
VanPatten, B. 1990. Attending to content and form in the input: An experiment in consciousness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 12.287–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
VanPatten, B. 1992. Input processing and second language acquisition. Paper delivered at the annual conference of the American Association for Applied Linguistics.Seattle, WA, February 1992.Google Scholar
Vokey, J. R. and Brooks, L. R.. 1992. Salience of item knowledge in learning artificial grammars. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition. 18.328–344.Google Scholar
White, L. 1987. Against comprehensible input: The input hypothesis and the development of second language competence. Applied Linguistics.8.95–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L. 1989. Universal grammar and second language acquisition. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L., Spada, N., Lightbown, P. M. and Ranta, L.. 1991. Input enhancement and L2 question formation. Applied Linguistics. 12.416–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar