In the southwestern part of the Sea of Okhotsk off Hokkaido, sea-ice drift characteristics are investigated using the ice and water velocities obtained from a moored upward-looking acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) during the winters of 1999–2001. Using hourly-mean values of these data along with the wind data measured at a nearby coastal station, the wind factor and turning angle of the relative velocity between the ice and water velocities with respect to the wind are calculated assuming free drift under various conditions. Since the simultaneous sea-ice draft data are also available from a moored ice-profiling sonar (IPS), we examine the dependence of drift characteristics on ice thickness for the first time. As ice thickness increases and wind decreases, the wind factor decreases and the turning angle increases, as predicted by the theory of free drift. This study clearly shows the utility of the moored ADCP measurement for studying sea-ice drift, especially with the simultaneous IPS measurement for ice thickness, which cannot be obtained by other methods.

The spatial pattern of glacier surface melt was measured with a resolution of 20–100m within a region extending 1 km up-glacier from the terminus of Rhonegletscher, Switzerland. The melt rate was monitored from 6 July to 6 September 2009 using 44 ablation stakes. We also measured the surface albedo near the stakes to investigate the importance of this parameter for the melt-rate distribution. The melt rate varied from 32.8 to 71.9 mm w.e. d–1 in the study area. Our measurements suggest that the spatial variation of the melt rate can be explained by (1) shading of the ice surface by neighbouring mountains, (2) surface albedo and (3) effects of microclimate (e.g. radiation from sidewalls) on the surface energy balance. The observed melt-rate distribution was compared to the results of a temperature-index melt model, which takes into account shading of direct solar illumination but not the other two effects. The model reproduces some important features of the field data, but its spatial variations are generally less than the measured values. Our study shows the importance of albedo and other local conditions in the accurate estimation of the small-scale melt-rate distribution.

Changes in ice-sheet surface elevation are caused by a combination of ice-dynamic imbalance, ablation, temporal variations in accumulation rate, firn compaction and underlying bedrock motion. Thus, deriving the rate of ice-sheet mass change from measured surface elevation change requires information on the rate of firn compaction and bedrock motion, which do not involve changes in mass, and requires an appropriate firn density to associate with elevation changes induced by recent accumulation rate variability. We use a 25 year record of surface temperature and a parameterization for accumulation change as a function of temperature to drive a firn compaction model. We apply this formulation to ICESat measurements of surface elevation change at three locations on the Greenland ice sheet in order to separate the accumulation-driven changes from the ice-dynamic/ablation-driven changes, and thus to derive the corresponding mass change. Our calculated densities for the accumulation-driven changes range from 410 to 610 kgm–3, which along with 900 kgm–3 for the dynamic/ablation-driven changes gives average densities ranging from 680 to 790 kgm–3. We show that using an average (or ‘effective’) density to convert elevation change to mass change is not valid where the accumulation and the dynamic elevation changes are of opposite sign.

Interactions between Antarctic sea ice and synoptic activity in the circumpolar trough have been investigated using meteorological data from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Interim Re-analysis and sea-ice data from passive-microwave measurements. Total Antarctic sea-ice extent does not show large interannual variations. However, large differences are observed on a regional/monthly scale, depending on prevailing winds and currents, and thus on the prevailing synoptic situations. the sea-ice edge is also a preferred region for cyclogenesis due to the strong meridional temperature gradient (high baroclinicity) in that area. the motivation for this study was to gain a better understanding of the interaction between sea-ice extent and the general atmospheric flow, particularly the frequency of warm-air intrusions into the interior of the Antarctic continent, since this influences precipitation seasonality and must be taken into account for a correct climatic interpretation of ice cores. Two case studies of extraordinary sea-ice concentration anomalies in relation to the prevailing atmospheric conditions are presented. However, both strong positive and negative anomalies can be related to warm biases in ice cores (indicated by stable-isotope ratios), especially in connection with the negative phase of the Southern Annular Mode.

Catastrophic floods originating from glacial lake outbursts have recently become one of the primary natural hazards in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Here we report observations of glacial lake expansions and glacier recessions in the Boshula mountain range, southeast Tibet, derived from multitemporal remote-sensing images and digital elevation models during the period from the 1970s to 2009. The area of glacial lakes has expanded from 10.96 ± 0.1 km2 in the 1970s to 10.96±0.1km2 in 2009. Specifically, the area of moraine-dammed lakes has increased by 26.8%. From the 1970s to 2009, the glacierized area in the Boshula mountain range shrank by 12.7% (21.2 km2). Increasing mean summer air temperature was the main cause for the glacier recession and lake expansion from the 1970s to 2001, while the combination of increased summer temperature and decreased summer precipitation led to accelerated glacier recession after 2001. Climate warming and ongoing deglaciation play important roles in the expansion of moraine-dammed lakes, calling for intensified monitoring to properly address the hazard potential in the study area.

Monitoring the local mass balance of Arctic sea ice provides opportunities to attribute the observed changes in a particular floe’s mass balance to specific forcing phenomena. A shift from multi-year to seasonal ice in large portions of the Arctic presents a challenge for the existing Lagrangian array of autonomous ice mass-balance buoys, which were designed with a perennial ice cover in mind. This work identifies the anticipated challenges of operation in seasonal ice and presents a new autonomous buoy designed to monitor ice mass balance in the seasonal ice zone. the new design presented incorporates features which allow the buoy to operate in thin ice and open water, and reduce its vulnerability to ice dynamics and wildlife damage, while enhancing ease of deployment. A test deployment undertaken from April to June 2009 is discussed and results are presented with analysis to illustrate both the features and limitations of the buoy’s abilities.

Locations of subglacial lakes discovered under fast-moving West Antarctic ice streams tend to be associated with topographic features of the subglacial bed or with areas that have strong variations in basal conditions. Inversion of ice-stream surface velocity indicates that basal conditions under ice streams can be highly variable and that there can be widespread regions where basal traction is high. To seek an explanation for why lakes appear to be sited near areas with high basal traction, we use numerical models to simulate ice-stream dynamics, thermodynamics and subglacial water flow. We demonstrate that the ice flow over high basal traction areas produces favourable conditions for the ponding of meltwater. Energy dissipation associated with ice sliding over a region with high basal traction constitutes a water source supplying a lake, and ice-thickness perturbations induced by ice flow over variable traction create local minima in hydraulic potential. Variations in thermodynamic processes caused by such ice flow could be responsible for limiting the horizontal extent of the subglacial lakes.

We analyze the global sea-level budget since 1850. Good estimates of sea-level contributions from glaciers and small ice caps, the Greenland ice sheet and thermosteric sea level are available over this period, though considerable scope for controversy remains in all. Attempting to close the sea-level budget by adding the components results in a residual displaying a likely significant trend of ~0.37mma–1 from 1955 to 2005, which can, however, be reasonably closed using estimated melting from unsurveyed high-latitude small glaciers and ice caps. The sea-level budget from 1850 is estimated using modeled thermosteric sea level and inferences from a small number of mountain glaciers. This longer-term budget has a residual component that displays a rising trend likely associated with the end of the Little Ice Age, with much decadal-scale variability that is probably associated with variability in the global water cycle, ENSO and long-term volcanic impacts.

In situ measurements of water depth and optical properties of a melt pond in East Greenland were collected to verify a previously developed algorithm for determining supraglacial water depths using satellite imagery. That algorithm made five simplifying assumptions which we have tested using the in situ data and laboratory analysis of water samples. We conclude that three assumptions were justified, one was not and the remaining one (substrate homogeneity) requires further study, but probably has a minor effect on the retrieved water depths and volumes. Measured water depths of 0.2–3.0m agree well with those derived from a satellite image using the algorithm. Numerically modeled depths also agree well with those from the satellite image. This new analysis demonstrates the validity of our algorithm as a means for determining meltwater volumes in supraglacial ponds and lakes.

SeaRISE (Sea-level Response to Ice Sheet Evolution) is a US-led multi-model community effort to predict the likely range of the contribution of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets to sea-level rise over the next few hundred years under global warming conditions. The Japanese ice-sheet modelling community is contributing to SeaRISE with two large-scale, dynamic/thermodynamic models: SICOPOLIS and IcIES. Here we discuss results for the Greenland ice sheet, obtained using both models under the forcings (surface temperature and precipitation scenarios) defined by the SeaRISE effort. A crucial point for meaningful simulations into the future is to obtain initial conditions that are close to the observed state of the present-day ice sheet. This is achieved by proper tuning during model spin-up from the last glacial/interglacial cycle to today. Experiments over 500 years indicate that both models are more sensitive (exhibit a larger rate of ice-sheet mass loss) to future climate warming (based on the A1B emission scenario) than to a doubling in the basal sliding speed. Ice-sheet mass loss varies between the two models by a factor of ~2 for sliding experiments and a factor of ~3 for climate-warming experiments, highlighting the importance of improved constraints on the parameterization of basal sliding and surface mass balance in ice-sheet models.

A stand-alone sea-ice model (CICE4) was used to investigate the physical processes affecting the ice-edge location. Particular attention is paid to the relative contributions of dynamic and thermodynamic processes in advancing the ice edge equatorward during ice growth. Results from 10 years of an 11 year numerical simulation have been verified against satellite observations from 1998 to 2007. the autumn advance of the sea-ice edge is primarily due to thermodynamic processes, with significant dynamic contributions limited to regions such as 60–70˚ E and 310–340˚ E. In the dynamically dominated regions, winds with a southerly component cause equatorward ice advection but also induce thermodynamic growth of new ice, which occurs well poleward of the 15% ice-concentration contour where air temperature is lowest. As the ice moves into warmer water it melts, hence extending equatorward the region with ocean mixed layer at freezing point. This accelerates the northward progression of the ice edge and permits thermodynamic ice growth as soon as the air temperature reaches below the ocean freezing point. In regions where thermodynamic processes are dominant (e.g. 340–40˚ E), maximum ice production occurs just poleward of the 15% ice-concentration contour, where thin sea ice is prevalent. In these longitude bands, autumn ice melt is generally absent at the ice edge due to ineffective equatorward ice advection.

The variability of Arctic pack-ice parameters (e.g. extent and ice type) has been monitored by satellite-borne sensors since the early 1960s, and information on ice thickness is now becoming available from satellite altimeters. However, the spatial resolution of satellite-derived ice properties is too coarse to validate fine-scale ice variability generated by regional-scale interaction processes that affect the coarse-scale pack-ice albedo, strength and decay. To understand these regional processes, researchers rely on other data-monitoring platforms such as moored upward-looking sonars and helicopter-borne sensors. Backed by observations, two such regional-scale pack-ice decay processes are discussed: the break-up of large pack-ice floes by long-period waves generated by distant storms, and the spring decay of first-year-ice ridges in a diverging pack-ice environment. These two processes, although occurring on regional spatial scales, are important contributors to the evolution of the total pack ice and need to be included in global climate models, especially as the conditions for their occurrence will alter due to climate change.

To investigate the impact of proglacial lake formation on the dynamics and evolution of glaciers, we measured the ice motion of the terminal part of Rhonegletscher, Switzerland, where a lake formed in 2005. In 2009, the flow velocity near the terminus was >20 m a−1. One of the survey stakes tripled its velocity between 2006 and 2007. Since the lake water pressure was consistently close to the ice overburden pressure, it is likely that the high subglacial water pressure enhanced the basal ice motion. The estimated flow velocity due to ice shearing was negligibly small; almost 100% of the horizontal velocity near the terminus was caused by basal sliding. The longitudinal strain rate was large, 0.064 a–1, indicating that much of the glacier thinning was due to ice dynamics. The region of ice flotation adjacent to the lake expanded between 2008 and 2009 as a result of glacier thinning. Accordingly, a huge uplift of the surface was observed in 2009. It is clear from the vertical ice motion as well as visual observations that the marginal part of the glacier began to float. The ice-thinning rate in the studied area from 2008 to 2009 was 3.4 ma–1, larger than previous estimates.

In this paper we review the interaction of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variability and warming trends recorded in ice-core records from high-altitude tropical glaciers, discuss the implications of the warming trends for the glaciers and consider the societal implications of glacier retreat. ENSO has strong impacts on meteorological phenomena that directly or indirectly affect most regions on the planet and their populations. Many tropical ice fields have provided continuous annually resolved proxy records of climatic and environmental variability preserved in measurable parameters, especially oxygen and hydrogen isotopic ratios (δ18O, δD) and the net mass balance (accumulation). These records present an opportunity to examine the nature of tropical climate variability in greater detail and to extract new information on linkages between rising temperatures on tropical glaciers and equatorial Pacific sea surface temperatures in critical ENSO indicator regions. The long-term climate records from a collection of high-altitude tropical ice cores provide the longer-term context essential for assessing the significance of the magnitude and rate of current climate changes that are in large measure driving glacier retreat. The well-documented ice loss on Quelccaya in the Peruvian Andes, Naimona’nyi in the Himalaya, Kilimanjaro in eastern Africa and the ice fields near Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia, presents a grim future for low-latitude glaciers. The ongoing melting of these ice fields (response) is consistent with model predictions for a vertical amplification of temperature in the tropics (driver) and has serious implications for the people who live in these areas.

Estimating soil-water flow during ground freezing is important for understanding factors affecting spring farming, soil microbial activity below the frozen soil, and permafrost thawing behavior. In this study, we performed a column freezing experiment using three different unsaturated soils (sand, loam and silt loam) to obtain a detailed dataset of temperature, water-content and pressure-head change under freezing conditions. The liquid water content and pressure head in the three soils decreased with decreasing temperature. Three soil temperature stages were found: unfrozen, stagnating near 0˚C and frozen. The temperature and duration of the stagnation stage differed among the soil types. The changes in liquid water content and pressure head during the freezing process were highly dependent on the soil-water retention curve. Water flowed through the frozen area in silt loam and sand, but no water flux was observed in the frozen loam. The freezing soil columns tended to contain more liquid water than estimated from retention curves measured at room temperature, especially at the early stage of freezing.

Sea-ice freeboard heights for 17 ICESat campaign periods from 2003 to 2009 are derived from ICESat data. Freeboard is combined with snow depth from Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer for Earth Observing System (AMSR-E) data and nominal densities of snow, water and sea ice, to estimate sea-ice thickness. Sea-ice freeboard and thickness distributions show clear seasonal variations that reflect the yearly cycle of growth and decay of the Weddell Sea (Antarctica) pack ice. During October–November, sea ice grows to its seasonal maximum both in area and thickness; the mean freeboards are 0.33–0.41m and the mean thicknesses are 2.10–2.59 m. During February–March, thinner sea ice melts away and the sea-ice pack is mainly distributed in the west Weddell Sea; the mean freeboards are 0.35–0.46m and the mean thicknesses are 1.48–1.94 m. During May–June, the mean freeboards and thicknesses are 0.26–0.29m and 1.32–1.37 m, respectively. the 6 year trends in sea-ice extent and volume are (0.023±0.051)×106 km2 a–1 (0.45% a–1) and (0.007±0.092)×103 km3 a–1 (0.08% a–1); however, the large standard deviations indicate that these positive trends are not statistically significant.

Within the percolation and soaked facies of the Greenland ice sheet, the relationship between radar-derived internal reflection horizons and the layered structure of the firn column is unclear. We conducted two small-scale ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys in conjunction with 10 m firn cores that we collected within the percolation and soaked facies of the Greenland ice sheet. The two surveys were separated by a distance of ~50 km and ~340m of elevation leading to ~40 days of difference in the duration of average annual melt. At the higher site (~1997ma.s.l.), which receives less melt, we found that internal reflection horizons identified in GPR data were largely laterally continuous over the grid; however, stratigraphic layers identified in cores could not be traced between cores over any distance from 1.5 to 14.0 m. Thus, we found no correlation between firn core stratigraphy observed directly and radar-derived internal reflection horizons. At the lower site (~1660ma.s.l.), which receives more melt, we found massive ice layers >0.5m thick and stratigraphic boundaries that span >15m horizontally. Some ice layers and stratigraphic boundaries correlate well with internal reflection horizons that are laterally continuous over the area of the radar grid. Internal reflection horizons identified at ~1997ma.s.l. are likely annual isochrones, but the reflection horizons identified at ~1660ma.s.l. are likely multi-annual features. We find that mapping accumulation rates over long distances by tying core stratigraphy to radar horizons may lead to ambiguous results because: (1) there is no stratigraphic correlation between firn cores at the 1997 m location; and (2) the reflection horizons at the 1660m location are multi-annual features.

We test the ability of a two-dimensional flux model to simulate polynya events with narrow open-water zones by comparing model results to ice-thickness and ice-production estimates derived from thermal infrared Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) observations in conjunction with an atmospheric dataset. Given a polynya boundary and an atmospheric dataset, the model correctly reproduces the shape of an 11 day long event, using only a few simple conservation laws. Ice production is slightly overestimated by the model, owing to an underestimated ice thickness. We achieved best model results with the consolidation thickness parameterization developed by Biggs and others (2000). Observed regional discrepancies between model and satellite estimates might be a consequence of the missing representation of the dynamic of the thin-ice thickening (e.g. rafting). We conclude that this simplified polynya model is a valuable tool for studying polynya dynamics and estimating associated fluxes of single polynya events.

The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern Hemisphere where seasonal sea ice is produced every year. The formation of sea ice drives thermohaline circulation in the Sea of Okhotsk, and this circulation supports the high productivity in the region. However, recent reports have indicated that sea-ice production in the Sea of Okhotsk is decreasing, raising concern that the decreased sea ice will affect not only circulation but also biological productivity in the sea. To reconstruct climatic changes in the Sea of Okhotsk region, we analyzed an ice core obtained from Ichinskaya Sopka (Mount Ichinsky), Kamchatka. We assumed that the remarkable negative peaks of δD in the ice core were caused by expansion of sea ice in the Sea of Okhotsk. Melt feature percentage (MFP), which indicates summer snowmelt, showed high values in the 1950–60s and the mid-1990s–2000s. The high MFP in the 1950–60s was assumed to be caused by an increase in cyclone activity reaching Kamchatka during a negative period of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation index, and that in the 1990–2000s may reflect the increase in solar irradiation during a positive period of the summer Arctic Oscillation index.