We use the apparent horizontal shift of an englacial tephra layer outcrop to calculate local glacier mass balance on Sléttjökull, a lobe of Mýrdalsjökull in Southern Iceland. For this approach, the dipping angle of the englacial tephra layer in the glacier upstream of the outcrop and the flow velocity of the ice need to be known. An earlier investigation was expanded by the application of ground-penetrating radar, detecting the depth of the tephra along tracks with a total length of 10 km. Interpolation between the tracks enables us to derive the dipping angle of the layer along several flow lines. Together with glacier surface velocities, determined from feature tracking, we are able to estimate the local surface mass balance from the horizontal displacement of the tephra outcrop using freely available satellite imagery without additional fieldwork. The earlier local balance series was extended to the period 2014/15 to 2019/20. Although the results for the individual profiles differ slightly from each other, they show the same temporal pattern and clear variations from year to year. The results are compared to traditional mass-balance data from Hofsjökull. The two series show a good agreement in their interannual variability.

Frontal ablation, the combination of submarine melting and iceberg calving, changes the geometry of a glacier's terminus, influencing glacier dynamics, the fate of upwelling plumes and the distribution of submarine meltwater input into the ocean. Directly observing frontal ablation and terminus morphology below the waterline is difficult, however, limiting our understanding of these coupled ice–ocean processes. To investigate the evolution of a tidewater glacier's submarine terminus, we combine 3-D multibeam point clouds of the subsurface ice face at LeConte Glacier, Alaska, with concurrent observations of environmental conditions during three field campaigns between 2016 and 2018. We observe terminus morphology that was predominately overcut (52% in August 2016, 63% in May 2017 and 74% in September 2018), accompanied by high multibeam sonar-derived melt rates (4.84 m d−1 in 2016, 1.13 m d−1 in 2017 and 1.85 m d−1 in 2018). We find that periods of high subglacial discharge lead to localized undercut discharge outlets, but adjacent to these outlets the terminus maintains significantly overcut geometry, with an ice ramp that protrudes 75 m into the fjord in 2017 and 125 m in 2018. Our data challenge the assumption that tidewater glacier termini are largely undercut during periods of high submarine melting.

Raman spectra (532 nm diode laser) of gypsum, syngenite and görgeyite powders were studied from 273 to 83 K every −10 K. Although it was found that not all the Raman peaks are temperature-sensitive, the effect of temperature on the Raman signal of some bands was modelled. It was observed that the main bands of the three sulfates shift toward higher wavenumbers as temperature decreases. The strengthening of the bonds causes an increase in energy and, consequently, higher wavenumbers. However, –OH bands shift depending on the crystal structure they acquire as the temperature decreases, so not all –OH bands behave in the same way. Finally, the gypsum –OH bands change to more ordered crystalline structures with decreasing temperature, so their bandwidths become narrower and sharper.

Small quantities of liquid water lining triple junctions in polycrystalline glacier ice form connected vein networks that enable material exchange with underlying basal environments. Diffuse debris concentrations commonly observed in ice marginal regions might be attributed to this mechanism. Following recent cryogenic ring-shear experiments, we observed emplacement along grain boundaries of loess particles several tens of microns in size. Here, we describe an idealized model of vein liquid flow to elucidate conditions favoring such particle transport. Gradients in liquid potential drive flow toward colder temperatures and lower solute concentrations, while deviations of the ice stress state from hydrostatic balance produce additional suction toward anomalously low ice pressures. Our model predicts particle entrainment following both modest warming along the basal interface resulting from anticipated natural changes in effective stress, and the interior relaxation of temperature and solute concentration imposed by our experimental protocols. Comparisons with experimental observations are encouraging, but suggest that liquid flow rates are somewhat higher and/or more effective at dragging larger particles than predicted by our idealized model with nominal parameter choices. Diffuse debris entrainment extending several meters above the glacier bed likely requires a more sophisticated treatment that incorporates effects of ice deformation or other processes.

Deciphering the localisation of solid and dissolved impurities on the micron-scale in glacial ice remains a challenge, but is critical to understand the integrity of ice core records and internal deformation. Here we report on the state-of-the-art in microstructural impurity research by highlighting recent progress in bringing together cryo-Raman spectroscopy and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). We show the potential of both methods and discuss possibilities to improve inter-method approaches aiming for a more holistic understanding of the evolution of impurity localisation throughout the ice column, including post-depositional processes. In this framework, we elaborate on future research priorities such as LA-ICP-MS imaging on firn samples and integrating a large cryo-cell with imaging capabilities.

The Jostedalsbreen ice cap is mainland Europe's largest ice cap and accommodates 20% (458 km2 in 2019) of the total glacier area of mainland Norway. Jostedalsbreen and its meltwater contribute to global sea-level rise and to local water management, hydropower and tourism economies and livelihoods. In this study, we construct a digital terrain model (DTM) of the ice cap from 1966 aerial photographs, which by comparing to an airborne LiDAR DTM from 2020, we compute changes in surface elevation and geodetic mass balances. The area mapped in both surveys cover about 3/4 of the ice cap area and 49 of 82 glaciers. The measured glacier area has decreased from 363.4 km2 in 1966 to 332.9 km2 in 2019, i.e. a change of −30 km2 or −8.4% (−0.16% a−1), which is in line with the percentage reduction in area for Jostedalsbreen as a whole. The mean geodetic mass balance over the 49 glaciers was −0.15 ± 0.01 m w.e. a−1, however, large variability is evident between glaciers, e.g. Nigardsbreen (−0.05 m w.e. a−1), Austdalsbreen (−0.28 m w.e. a−1) and Tunsbergdalsbreen (−0.36 m w.e. a−1) confirming differences also found by the glaciological records for Nigardsbreen and Austdalsbreen.

Due to adverse snow and cloud conditions, only a few inventories are available for the maritime glaciers in New Zealand. These are difficult to compare as different approaches and baseline data have been used to create them. In consequence, glacier fluctuations in New Zealand over the past two decades are only known for a few glaciers based on field observations. Here we present the results of a new inventory for the ‘year 2000’ (some scenes are from 2001 and 2002) that is based on glacier outlines from a recently published inventory for the year 2016 and allowed consistent change assessment for nearly 3000 glaciers over this period. The year 2000 inventory was created by manual on-screen digitizing using Landsat ETM+ satellite imagery (15 m panchromatic band) in the background and the year 2016 outlines as a starting point. Major challenges faced were late and early seasonal snow, clouds and shadow, the geo-location mismatch between Landsat and Sentinel-2 as well as the correct interpretation of ice patches and ice under debris cover. In total, we re-mapped 2967 glaciers covering an area of 885.5 km2 in 2000, which is 91.7 km2 (or 10.4%) more than the 793.8 km2 mapped in 2016. Area change rates (mean rate −0.65% a−1) increase towards smaller glaciers. Strongest area loss from 2000 to 2016 occurred at elevations ~1900 m but the highest relative loss was found below 800 m a.s.l. In total, 109 glaciers split into two or more entities and 264 had wasted away by 2016.

Icebergs in proglacial fjords serve as pupping, resting and molting habitat for some of the largest seasonal aggregations of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) in Alaska. One of the largest aggregations in Southeast Alaska occurs in Johns Hopkins Inlet, Glacier Bay National Park, where up to 2000 seals use icebergs produced by Johns Hopkins Glacier. Like other advancing tidewater glaciers, the advance of Johns Hopkins Glacier over the past century has been facilitated by the growth and continual redistribution of a submarine end moraine, which has limited mass losses from iceberg calving and submarine melting and enabled glacier thickening by providing flow resistance. A 15-year record of aerial surveys reveals (i) a decline in iceberg concentrations concurrent with moraine growth and (ii) that the iceberg size distributions can be approximated as power law distributions, with relatively little variability and no clear trends in the power law exponent despite large changes in ice fluxes over seasonal and interannual timescales. Together, these observations suggest that sustained tidewater glacier advance should typically be associated with reductions in the number of large, habitable icebergs, which may have implications for harbor seals relying on iceberg habitat for critical life-history events.

At any one time 130 000 icebergs are afloat in the Southern Ocean; 97% of these are too small to be registered in current satellite-based databases, yet the melting of these small icebergs provides a major input to the Southern Ocean. We use a unique set of visual size observations of 53 000 icebergs in the South Atlantic Ocean, the SCAR International Iceberg Database, to derive average iceberg dissolution rates. Fracture into two parts is the dominant dissolution process for tabular icebergs, with an average half-life of 30 days for icebergs <4 km length and 60 days for larger icebergs. Complete shatter producing many icebergs <1 km length is rare. A side attrition rate of 0.23 m d−1 combined with drift speed of 6 km d−1, or any proportional change in both numbers fits the observed changes in iceberg distribution. The largest injection into the Southern Ocean of fresh water and any iceberg-transported material takes place in a ~2.3 × 10⁶ km2 zone extending east-northeast from the Antarctic Peninsula to the Greenwich meridian. The iceberg contribution to salinities and temperatures, with maximum contribution north of the Weddell Sea, differs in some regions, from those indicated by tracking large icebergs.

Cryospheric change occurs in unequal spaces. Societies living near ice are divided by race, class, gender, geography, politics and other factors. Consequently, impacts of ice loss are not shared equally, and everyone experiences cryospheric changes differently. Responsibility for recent ice loss is also driven by a relatively small portion of humanity: those who emit the most greenhouse gases. Additionally, people who study the cryosphere come from institutions and societies where inequality is often systemic, making research on ice and snow a symptom of and contributor to social inequality. To better understand unequal effects of cryospheric change within and across diverse communities, including research communities, this paper focuses on three areas, drawing primarily from glacier-related work: (1) the social context of cryospheric changes; (2) attribution and responsibility for cryospheric changes and (3) imbalances in knowledge about the cryosphere. Addressing these dimensions of ice loss requires transdisciplinary approaches that connect research to societies and link glaciology and other cryospheric sciences with social sciences and humanities. These concepts, cases and suggestions to help address inequalities also reveal that no singular conceptualization of sustainability exists. Different societies, residents and researchers possess distinct understandings of and goals for ‘ice in a sustainable society’.

Snow ice (SI) forms from freezing wet snow, known as slush, and contributes to the thickness of level and brash ice. However, the mechanism of snow-slush-snow ice transformation has not been extensively investigated to date, despite the difference in the freezing rate of slush in comparison with water is important for estimating the ice thickness. In this study, we examined the growth of initial congelation ice (CI) and snow ice (SI) in a fresh water tank exposed to outdoor weather conditions in Luleå, northern Sweden. The tank of size 1.8 × 0.65 × 1.2 m in length, width and height was divided into two compartments to facilitate the simultaneous growth of CI and SI. A total of 12 experiments were conducted in the years 2021 and 2022. The transformation from slush to snow ice was achieved by submerging various amounts of snow in the compartments. It was observed that approximately 35% of the initial snow transformed into SI. Snow ice grew 4 mm°C−0.5 d−0.5 faster than congelation ice. The CI growth under SI was 1 mm°C−0.5 d−0.5 slower than the CI growth under CI. This study provides valuable insights for modelling snow-slush-snow ice transformation and designing future laboratory-scale experiments.

Over the last two decades, anomalous warming events have been observed in coastal Antarctic regions. While these events have been documented in the Ross Sea sector, the Antarctic interior is believed to have been buffered from warming. In this work, we present data from lakes located near Mt. Heekin and Thanksgiving Valley (~85° S) along the Shackleton Glacier, which are believed to be the southern-most Antarctic dry valley lakes. In 2018, the lakes were characterized, repeat satellite images were examined, and lake water chemistry was measured. Our analysis shows that lake areas recently increased, and the water-soluble ion chemistry indicates a flushing of salts from periglacial soils, likely from increased glacial melt as illustrated by water isotope data. Our results show that high southern latitude ice-free areas have likely been affected by warm pulses over the past 60 years and these pulses may be quasi-synchronous throughout the Transantarctic Mountains.

Using operational sea-ice maps, we provide first insight into the seasonal evolution of fast ice in the East Siberian Sea for the period between 1999 and 2021. The fast ice season tends to start later by 4.7 d per decade and to end earlier by 9.7 d per decade. As a result, there is a trend towards a shorter length of fast ice season by 2 weeks per decade. The analysis of air temperatures indicates that onset and end of the fast ice season are largely driven by thermodynamic processes. Two spatial modes (large, L-mode and small, S-mode) of East Siberian fast ice cover which have significant areal differences were distinguished. The occurrence of L- and S-modes was linked to the polarity of the Arctic Oscillation (AO) index. Negative AO phase leads to increased sea-ice convergence in the region, which in turn favours sea-ice grounding and promotes the development of large fast ice extent (L-mode). Lower deformation rates in the region during positive AO phase does not allow the formation of grounded features which results in small fast ice extent (S-mode). An analysis of sea-ice divergence confirms that L-mode seasons are characterised by higher on-shore convergence compared with S-mode seasons.

Upper Palaeolithic archaeological sites in the Basque Country have been excavated for over a century. They have yielded a rich palaeoenvironmental record with zoological and botanical remains that have been obtained in stratigraphic series dated precisely by radiocarbon. This information reveals cyclical environmental changes from climates similar to today to drier and extremely cold conditions, when species in current boreal biomes and others now extinct but with similar ecological preferences were present in the region. Moreover, the archaeological sites have provided high-resolution information about the resilience mechanisms of the communities of our own human species. This information allows us to increase the corpus of palaeoclimate data regarding the Marine Isotopic Stage (MIS) 2 and MIS 3 for a critical region within the human population of Eurasia. The aim of this paper is to show how an extraordinary capacity for adaptation to drastic climate changes Upper Palaeolithic hunter–gatherer societies displayed, even though their subsistence depended on biotic resources that alter rapidly.

Arctic rain-on-snow (ROS) events can have significant impacts on Arctic wildlife and socio-economic systems. This study addresses the meteorology of two different Arctic ROS events. The first, occurring near Nuuk, Greenland, generated significant impacts, including slush avalanches. The second, less severe, event occurred within the community of Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada. This research utilizes atmospheric reanalysis, automated surface observation station data and atmospheric soundings to determine the meteorological conditions driving these events and the differences between each case. In both cases, atmospheric blocking played a leading role in ROS initiation, with atmospheric rivers – narrow bands of high water vapor transport, typically originating from the tropics and subtropics – having both direct and indirect effects. Cyclone-induced low-level jets and resultant ‘warm noses’ of higher air temperatures and moisture transport were other key features in ROS generation. To our knowledge, our study is the first to visualize how the varying strength and manifestation of these coupled features contribute to differences in the severity of Arctic ROS events. The meteorological drivers identified here find support from other studies on Arctic ROS events and are similar to weather features associated with Arctic precipitation events of extreme magnitude.

Monte Perdido Glacier, located in the central Pyrenees, is one of the southernmost glaciers in Europe. Due to climate change, this glacier is suffering an accelerated mass loss, especially in the last decades. If the current trends persist, this glacier is expected to disappear in the next 50 years. As part of the efforts of the scientific community to increase the knowledge about this glacier, this research presents the first microstructural characterization of the Monte Perdido Glacier, focused on a high-impurity concentration segment that belongs to an ice core drilled in 2017. The results reveal the ice has a layering defined by air bubbles and non-soluble impurities. The bubble-defined layering exhibits features of both a primary (sedimentary) and a secondary (strain-induced) origin. We found a clear inverse correspondence between the particle concentration and the grains' size and roundness index. A preliminary micro-Raman characterization of the particles shows the occurrence of atacamite, anatase (likely related to ancient mining activities in the vicinity of the glacier) and quartz. The latter could be an indicator of mineral dust, probably suggesting the arrival of dust-laden air masses from the north of the African continent.