Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T23:59:26.280Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Relationships between integumental characteristics and thermoregulation in South American camelids

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2009

M. Gerken
M. Gerken*
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Sciences, Göttingen University, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 3, 37075 Göttingen, Germany
*
†E-mail: [email protected]
Get access

Abstract

Hair fibre is regarded as a unique mammalian feature with an important role for endothermy. Artificial selection for hair characteristics resulted in marked changes with regard to follicle number, type, distribution, growth and natural shedding. This review focuses on the fine fibre-producing South American camelids (SACs) and the relationship between their hair coat and thermoregulation. SACs have developed several special integumental characteristics. While the hair coat of the wild lamoids vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) and guanaco (Lama guanicoe) is formed by two types of hair (the coarse outer guard hairs and a finer undercoat), the domesticated llamas (Lama glama) and alpaca (Lama pacos) exhibit variably double coat and predominantly single coat, respectively. The distribution of the hair coat across the body is not homogenous. Thermal windows with shorter hair or thinner skin can be identified at the ventral abdomen, axillary space and inside of the thighs (about 20% of the skin), thus allowing to modulate heat dissipation. In contrast to sheep wool, lamoid fibres are mainly medullated. The thermal conductance of summer pelage was higher than that of the winter fleece and highest for the axillar and lower flanks. Lamoids have developed behavioural strategies to modify heat loss by adopting specific postures according to ambient conditions by closing or opening the thermal windows. Energy savings of 67% attributed to posture were calculated. SACs have shown to be able to adapt to a broad range of different climatic conditions. The specific integumental characteristics of SACs indicate that they have developed adaptation mechanisms particularly suited for cooler climates. Accordingly, hyperthermia might become a problem in hot, humid areas outside of their original habitat. Several studies showed the beneficial effect of shearing against heat stress. In particular, fertility in males exposed to heat stress may be improved by shearing. Infrared thermography reveals that in shorn animals the heat is radiated across the entire body surface and is not restricted to the thermal windows. However, shearing also changes the conditions of the protective layer, resulting in a loss of thermal conductance that may result in adverse effects when animals are kept under cold temperatures. The length of residual fibre appears to be crucial in avoiding excessive heat loss in a cold environment, as demonstrated by shearing experiments with different shearing machines. There is, therefore, potential for welfare considerations to conflict with industrial demands for fibre length or homogenous quality.

Keywords

fibre, thermoregulation, shearing, South American camelids
Type
Full Paper
Information
animal , Volume 4 , Issue 9 , September 2010 , pp. 1451 - 1459
Copyright
Copyright © The Animal Consortium 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allain, D, Renieri, C 2010. Genetics of fibre production and fleece characteristics in small ruminants, Angora rabbit and South American camelids. Animal 4, 1472–1481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, TE, Bligh, J 1969. A comparative study of the temporal pattern of cutaneous water vapor loss from some domesticated mammals with epitrichial sweat glands. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 31, 347–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Antonini, M 2010. Hair follicle characteristics and fibre production in South American Camelids. Animal 4, 1460–1471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atlee, BA, Stannard, AA, Fowler, ME, Willemse, T, Ihrke, PJ, Olivry, T 1997. The histology of normal llama skin. Veterinary Dermatology 8, 165–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bligh, J 1998. Mammalian homeothermy: an integrative thesis. Journal of Thermal Biology 23, 143–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bligh, J, Baumann, I, Sumar, J, Pocco, F 1975. Studies of body temperature patterns in South American Camelidae. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 50, 701–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonacic, C, Feber, RE, Macdonald, DW 2006. Capture of the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) for sustainable use: animal welfare implications. Biological Conservation 129, 543–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bulgarella, M, de Lamo, D 2005. Thermal conductance of guanaco (Lama guanicoe) pelage. Journal of Thermal Biology 30, 569–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawes, K 1973. Objective Measurement of Wool. New South Wales University Press, Sydney, Australia.Google Scholar
de Lamo, DA 1990. Temperature regulation and energetics of the guanaco (Lama guanicoe). PhD, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. 184pp.Google Scholar
de Lamo, DA, Sanborn, AF, Carrasco, CD, Scott, DJ 1998. Daily activity and behavioral thermoregulation of the guanco (Lama guanicoe) in winter. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76, 1388–1393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Lamo, DA, Lacolla, D, Heath, JE 2001. Sweating in the guanaco (Lama guanicoe). Journal of Thermal Biology 26, 77–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duga, L 1986. Características más importantes de las fibras provenientes de camélidos sudamericanos (llamas, alpacas y sus cruzas y guanacos). Proceedings of the LANAS, Seminario Cientifico Regional, 1985, Montevideo, Uruguay, Editorial Hemisfero Sur, pp. 215–217.Google Scholar
Eckhart, L, Valle, LD, Jaeger, K, Ballaun, C, Szabo, S, Nardi, A, Buchberger, M, Hermann, M, Alibardi, L, Tschachler, E 2008. Identification of reptilian genes encoding hair keratin-like proteins suggests a new scenario for the evolutionary origin of hair. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105, 18419–18423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eltringham, SK, Jordan, W 1981. The vicuña of the Pampa Galeras National Reserve. The conservation issue. In Problems in management of locally abundant wild animals (ed. PA Jewell and S Holt), pp. 277–289. Academic Press, New York, USA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flores Ochoa, J 1994. Man’s relationship with the camelids. In Gold of the Andes: the llama, alpacas, vicuñas and guanacos of South America (ed. J Martinez), pp. 36–286. FO Patthey and sons, Barcelona, Spain.Google Scholar
Fowler, ME 1994. Hyperthermia in llamas and alpacas. The veterinary clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice 10, 309–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, ME 1998. Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids, 2nd edition. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA, USA.Google Scholar
Galbraith, H 2010a. Fundamental hair follicle biology and fine fibre production in animals. Animal 4, 1490–1509.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galbraith, H 2010b. In vitro methodology, hormonal and nutritional effects and fibre production in isolated ovine and caprine anagen hair follicles. Animal 4, 1482–1489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gatenby, RM, Monteith, JL, and Clark, JA 1983. Temperature and humidity gradients in a sheep’s fleece. II. The energetic significance of transients. Agricultural Meteorology 29, 83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerken, M 1996. Application of infrared thermography to evaluate the influence of the fibre on body surface temperature in llamas. In Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on South American Camelids (ed. M Gerken and C Renieri), 30 August to 2 September 1995, Camerino, pp. 255–261. Università degli studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy.Google Scholar
Gerken, M, Snell, H 1998. Tierschutzfragen bei der Haltung von Neuweltkameliden in Europa. Proceedings of the Tagung Tierschutz und Nutztierhaltung, 5 to 7 March 1998, Nürtingen, Germany, DVG, pp. 205–211.Google Scholar
Gerken, M, Bramsmann, S, Dörl, J 2003. Evaluation of thermoregulation in llamas (Lama glama). Proceedings of the 3 Congreso Mundial sobre Camelidos, 15 to 18 October 2003, Potosí, Bolivia, vol. 1, pp. 135–140.Google Scholar
Gerken, M, Afnan, R, Dörl, J 2006. Adaptive behaviour in chickens in relation to thermoregulation. Archiv für Geflügelkunde 70, 199–207.Google Scholar
Grigg, GC, Beard, LA, Augee, ML 2004. The evolution of endothermy and its diversity in mammals and birds. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 77, 982–997.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, PJ 1990. Effects of coat colour on physiological responses to solar radiation in Holsteins. Veterinary Records 127, 333–334.Google ScholarPubMed
Harris, GD, Huppi, HD, Gessaman, JA 1985. The thermal conductance of winter and summer pelage of Lepus californicus. Journal of Thermal Biology 10, 79–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heath, AM, Navarre, CB, Simpkins, A, Purohit, RC, Pugh, DG 2001. A comparison of surface and rectal temperatures between sheared and non-sheared alpacas (Lama pacos). Small Ruminant Research 39, 19–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessen, C 2001. Temperature regulation in humans and other mammals. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laker, J 2006. Wildlife or livestock? Divergent paths for the vicuña as priorities change in the pursuit of sustainable development. In South American camelids research (ed. M Gerken and C Renieri), pp. 26–27. vol. 1. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
McArthur, AJ 1991. Thermal radiation exchange, convection and the storage of latent heat in animal coats. Agricultural Forest Meteorology 53, 325–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCafferty, DJ 2007. The value of infrared thermography for research on mammals: previous applications and future directions. Mammal Review 37, 207–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meng, J, Wyss, AR 1997. Multituberculate and other mammal hair recovered from Palaeogene excreta. Nature 385, 712–714.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milz, C 2001. Vergleichende Untersuchungen zum Verhalten von Lamas und Schafen auf der Weide. Inaugural Dissertation, Justus Liebig University Giessen.Google Scholar
Moen, AN 1973. Wildlife Ecology. WH Freeman Co, San Francisco, CA, USA.Google Scholar
Morrison, P 1966. Insulative flexibility in the guanaco. Journal of Mammalogy 47, 18–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Navarre, CB, Heath, AM, Wenzel, J, Simpkins, A, Blair, E, Belknap, E, Pugh, DG 2001. A comparison of physical examination and clinicopathologic parameters between sheared and nonsheared alpacas (Lama pacos). Small Ruminant Research 39, 11–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patthey Salas, JF 1994. Textile Process for South American camelids. In Proceedings of the European Symposium on South American Camelids (ed. M Gerken and C Renieri), pp. 167–175. Università degli studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy.Google Scholar
Phan, K-H 1994. Neue Erkenntnisse über die Morphologie von Kreatinfasern mit Hilfe der Elektronenmikroskopie. Thesis RWTH Aachen University. Verlag Mainz, Wissenschaftsverlag, Aachen.Google Scholar
Pilters, H 1954. Untersuchungen über angeborene Verhaltensweisen bei Tylopoden, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der neuweltlichen Formen. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 11, 213–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenmann, M, Morrison, P 1963. Physiological response to heat and dehydration in the guanaco. Physiological Zoology 36, 45–51.Google Scholar
Rotter, D 1991. Llamas can Beat the Heat. R&R Press, Dripping Springs, TX, USA.Google Scholar
Ruben, J 1995. The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from physiology to fossils. Annual Review of Physiology 57, 69–95.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russel, AJF, Redden, H 1994. Effects of season and nutrition on fibre growth in llamas. In Proceedings European Symposium on South American Camelids (ed. M Gerken and C Renieri), pp. 179–186. Università degli studi di Camerino, Camerino, Italy.Google Scholar
Schmidt-Nielsen, K 1997. Animal Physiology, 5th edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwalm, A, Erhardt, G, Gerken, M, Moors, E, Gauly, M 2008. Einfluss von Hitzebelastung auf Thermoregulation und Fruchtbarkeitsleistung bei geschorenen und ungeschorenen männlichen Lamas (Lama glama). Tierärztliche Praxis 36, 324–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turnpenny, JR, McArthur, AJ, Clark, JA, Wathes, CM 2000. Thermal balance of livestock 1. A parsimonious model. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 101, 15–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walsberg, GE, Campbell, GS, and King, JR 1978. Animal coat color and radiative heat gain: a re-evaluation. Journal of Comparative Physiology B 126, 211–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar