The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) policy definition that “animal welfare is a complex international public policy issue with scientific, ethical, economic, cultural and religious dimensions, plus important trade policy considerations” clearly demonstrates the multi-faceted nature of animal welfare. Progress made is inevitably incremental and compromises often have to be reached between animal welfare and other important societal values. Recognition of the need for managed change over agreed time-frames, and involving full consultation with affected animal user groups, is essential. This paper draws on case studies involving intensive livestock agriculture, live animal exports for slaughter, religious slaughter and vertebrate pest control in both New Zealand's domestic experience, gained over the last 20 years, and international (OIE) experience, gained over the last ten years. Case studies will also highlight policy considerations relating to animal health, food safety and the impact on the environment. Important drivers of animal welfare change will be discussed; as will the constraints to making changes. The paper will conclude by commenting on the direction, and rate, of animal welfare change and the impact of animal welfare being addressed, not only at the national and regional level, but now also at the international level.

A total of 107 ear samples from all the pigs that died during transport or lairage at two commercial abattoirs were collected during two months (February and July), in order to determine their halothane genotype (NN, Nn or nn). The frequencies of the three halothane genotypes among dead pigs were significantly different (P < 0.001), being 4.7%, 24.3% and 71.0% for NN, Nn and nn individuals, respectively. The frequencies of pre-slaughter deaths within each genotype were estimated to be 0.02%, 0.09% and 2.29% for NN, Nn and nn genotypes, respectively. According to these results, the removal of both nn and Nn genotypes would give rise to an eleven-fold reduction in the pre-slaughter mortality rate (from 0.22% to 0.02%). It is therefore suggested that, from an animal welfare point of view, the elimination of the halothane gene in existing breeding schemes would have a major beneficial impact.

The natural protective behaviour displayed by Konik Polski horses against flies was investigated. The factors considered were age (adults versus foals), management system (forest reserve versus pasture), weather conditions and type of horse activity. Twenty-five Konik Polski adults and 18 foals were observed between 0800 and 2000h during two summer seasons (2000 and 2001). Individual protective behaviours (IB) eg tail swishing, head shaking, leg lifting, skin twitching and social protective behaviour (grouping for mutual protection) against insects were studied. Adult and forest-kept horses performed more IB than foals and pastured horses, respectively. Wet and windy weather conditions significantly reduced insect harassment and the frequency of responses to insects. Therefore, if it is not possible to apply chemical repellents against insects, then allowing horses to aggregate into groups or providing them with refuge, especially on hot and windless days, may have significant welfare benefits.

Foraging ecology and food patch studies are commonly used to elucidate the environmental perceptions of wild, free-ranging animals. Their application to captive animals, however, especially those in zoos, is still in its infancy. To illustrate some specific applications of zoo foraging ecology, we provide a study that evaluated: (i) whether patch use and giving-up densities (GUDs) can reveal areas of preference within an exhibit for zoo species; (ii) if food patches provide an effective form of behavioural enrichment; and (iii) if visitor interest and behaviour is affected by food patch presence. A combination of behavioural observations, and experimental food patches and giving-up densities were used to address these objectives in Parma wallabies (Macropus parma) and Patagonian cavies (Dolichotis patagonum) at Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Illinois USA. GUDs revealed distinct areas of preference and aversion within the exhibit for cavies, but not so for the wallabies. For both species, presence of food patches increased foraging behaviours, decreased inactive behaviours, and increased within-exhibit movement, demonstrating that food patches serve as an effective behavioural enrichment technique. The use of food patches also revealed striking differences between individuals, particularly for the pair of cavies. There were encouraging trends toward increased visitor number and stay-time when food patches were present in each exhibit, but the effect was not statistically significant. These results suggest that utilising patch use, GUDs, and foraging theory in zoo populations may enhance animal welfare, and can inform improvements to exhibit design directly from the animal's perspective. We conclude with a broader discussion of zoo foraging ecology as an emerging field, with suggestions for future avenues of research.

Predation of sheep and cattle by the dingo (Canis lupus dingo) is implicated in significant stock losses throughout much of mainland Australia. Leg-hold traps are commonly used for dingo control and ways are sought to improve the humaneness of these devices. We evaluated the performance of the tranquilliser trap device (TTD) attached to Victor Soft-Catch® traps for their ability to deliver a sedative and anxiolytic drug to trapped dingoes. A trapping programme was conducted in south-west Queensland where traps were set alternatively with a TTD containing either 800 mg of diazepam (drug TTD) or a placebo (placebo TTD). All TTDs included 20 mg of the bait marker iophenoxic acid (IPA) to ascertain dosing success. Each trap was fitted with an activity-monitoring data logger that recorded time of capture and subsequent dingo activity. In 41 out of 48 (85.4%) captures the TTD was ruptured and released its contents. No elevation in serum iodine levels above I mg ml-1 resulting from the ingestion of IPA occurred in 8 out of 36 (22.2%) captures, which suggests a higher rate of dosage failure. Dingo activity was highest in both groups immediately after capture, but declined after the first hour in each. The activity of dingoes that accepted a drug TTD was significantly reduced compared to those that took the placebo. However, tooth and limb damage scores did not differ significantly between the drug and placebo group. Much of the physical trauma may have occurred within the first hour of capture when activity was intense and before drug onset in the TTD drug group. The use of TTDs containing sedative and anxiolytic drugs has the potential to reduce anxiety and distress associated with prolonged captivity, but the delivery of a lethal agent that is rapidly acting and humane may result in better welfare outcomes.

Accurate identification of key welfare issues for captive elephants could improve standards and help in the development of a welfare index. In the absence of adequate scientific information on the relative importance of key issues, the views of a range of stakeholders were sought using adaptive conjoint analysis. Fifteen key welfare issues were identified by experts, and three to six Levels of each, representing common husbandry practices. In order of declining importance, 224 stakeholders rated the issues as enclosure substrate > group size > healthcare > enrichment > chaining > enclosure type > exercise provision > enclosure size > interaction with keeper > enclosure environment > keeper knowledge/experience > diet > contact method with keeper > display duration > enclosure security. Enclosure size was considered more important by scientists and keepers than zoo directors/managers and animal welfare organisation representatives. Animal welfare organisation representatives rated enclosure security higher than scientists. Keeper husbandry methods and ability of elephants to be active were two principal components in responses. Three principal groups of respondents were identified: scientists/veterinarians focusing more on conditions for the elephants and less on interaction with the public; keepers, focusing on keeper contact method, feeding and knowledge of elephants; and a group with mainly animal welfare organisation representatives/zoo directors focusing on enclosure security. It is concluded that there are some differences between stakeholders in their recognition of the most important welfare issues for elephants in zoos. However, recognising that a diversity of informed opinion is necessary to adequately devise welfare standards, an index of elephant welfare in zoos is proposed, based on the relative merits of different husbandry practices and the importance of the different issues.

Given the increased interest in animal emotional reactions for assessing welfare, indicators for such reactions are sought. Ear postures and movements have been found to be promising indicators of emotional states in sheep and other animals. The manual recording of ear postures, however, is very time consuming and possibly prone to a degree of inaccuracy due to the subtle and fast nature of ear movements that have to be identified. Therefore, a number of previous studies have analysed the frequency of certain ear postures relative to all ear posture changes rather than measuring the relative duration spent with different ear postures. Here, we present an automated, continuous tracking system that keeps track of small and lightweight marker balls attached to the head and ears of sheep. We measured ear postures and movements when the animals were confronted with three physical stimuli thought to differ in valence (from negative to intermediate to positive). We then compared new ear-posture definitions reflecting the real time spent with certain ear postures during stimulation with previous definitions used for video-based analyses that assessed ear-posture changes in relation to the total number of observed ear postures. In the analysis, we correlated new and previous measures both between and within experimental stimuli using residuals from mixed-effects models. We found that the new and previous definitions of ear postures and movements correlated highly. Given these high correlations and the discussed theoretical and practical advantages of the automated tracking, the new recording system can be recommended highly for assessing reactions in animals that may indicate emotional states.

One commonly used method of managing confiscated wild primates in Latin American countries is to release rehabilitated individuals back to their natural habitats. However, little information has been collected from confiscated animal releases, so no clear guidelines have been developed to measure the success of this type of procedure. In most countries, the collection of critical post-release data is too costly and time-consuming for it to be incorporated into the routine procedures of institutions managing confiscated fauna. Therefore, this project was carried out in conditions similar to those of other Colombian and Latin American rehabilitation centres. A group of eight confiscated and rehabilitated brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) was released in Los Llanos Orientales in Colombia, and monitored for 6.5 months to determine their adaptation and survival after release. Results were analysed according to how the animals adapted to their new environment in terms of foraging, feeding, locomotion, sleeping, social interactions between the group and with other animals and species, prédation, orientation, and establishment of a territory. The results show that the short-term adaptation and survival of the group 6.5 months after release was successful. Five of the eight animals remained together, two separated, and only one was lost during the first month. Implications for animal well-being are discussed.

Mirrors can enrich the environment of some social animals kept in isolation. In this study, the effect of mirrors on the behaviour of isolated, or partially isolated, caged rabbits was tested. In a changeover experiment, four treatments were investigated: isolated without mirrors; partially isolated (with a conspecific housed behind a partition) without mirrors; isolated with mirrors; and partially isolated with mirrors. Behaviour was recorded during the first hour for which the rabbits were in the cages with the stimuli, and then again after one week. Initially, the rabbits' alertness increased, which may be because they perceived the mirror image to be a potential threat. The mirrors also stimulated investigation by the rabbits, which initially scraped them rapidly with their forepaws (scrabbling) and sniffed them. Although sniffing was maintained until the end of the week, scrabbling was not, probably because the rabbits failed to elicit the normal reactions of a conspecific from their mirror images. Mirrors also reduced the time rabbits spent sitting in their living area looking out of the cage, and increased their behavioural complexity, as determined from the number of behaviours performed per minute. In a second experiment, the responses of seven rabbits to four stimuli were recorded: a conspecific; a toy animal; a mirror; and a blank card. The rabbits were presented with pairs of stimuli at either end of a marked board. The responses of the rabbits to mirrors were more similar to their responses to a blank card or to a soft toy than to a conspecific. Although the rabbits did not respond to mirror images as if they were conspecifics, the mirrors may have had benefits to the complexity of behaviour of rabbits in small cages.

Animal welfare presents particular policy challenges. Good welfare provides private productivity benefits to producers and some level of positive external benefit to people who care about animal welfare status. But markets for welfare fail, meaning that private producers are unlikely to provide the correct level of external benefit and social welfare will not be maximised. Accordingly, there is a rationale for government to be involved in the provision of animal welfare. The public good nature of animal welfare supply presents policy challenges for government regulators. Specifically, in setting regulatory targets, Defra, as the regulator, aims to maximise social welfare by designing regulation that delivers benefits that are at least equal to regulatory costs at the margin. This means that regulatory targets must be informed by some assessment of benefits of welfare policies. This paper considers this problem in the context of the proposed EU Directive on broiler welfare. The paper describes the application of the contingent valuation method to measure the economic benefits of broiler welfare, and considers how the results inform welfare target setting.

Some physiological variables which could aid in assessing the welfare of beef cattle in feedlots were screened in this exploratory study. In two experiments, each of 42 days duration, the physiological responses of Bos taurus steers to three treatments were investigated: pasture (rotation between 1.5 hectare paddocks); a feedlot yard stocked at 12.0 m2 per head with a dry, firm pen surface; and a ‘high-density’ feedlot yard stocked at 6.0 m2 per head with a wet and muddy pen surface. Fourteen steers were used per group per experiment. Relative adrenal mass in both feedlot groups was 8-10% higher than in the pasture group, and this finding was supported by morphological measurements of the adrenal glands. Out of 17 immune variables examined, only serum IgA and the T-cell lymphocytes subpopulation WC+1 showed consistent differences between the feedlot and pasture groups. Interestingly, no differences were observed between the two feedlot treatments. It was concluded that although there may have been some disruption of epithelial/mucosal immunity, more support was required from other immune variables before it could be stated that the immune system was depressed and that pre-pathological states existed in the feedlot groups. However, measures of relative adrenal weight, adrenal index, serum IgA and WC1+ lymphocytes are good candidates for use in future welfare investigations of feedlot cattle.

In the event of a notifiable disease outbreak, poultry may need to be culled in situ. This should be performed swiftly and humanely to prevent further spread of the pathogen while preserving the welfare of the animals prior to death. Here, we examined the aversion of broiler chicks (Gallus domesticus) to three lethal gas mixtures at various concentrations to determine the least aversive mix that could be used in whole-house gassing. For 1 h, individual chicks (n = 36) were allowed to place their heads inside three feeding and drinking stations (FDS) in order to access food and water. Each FDS was filled with a different gas mixture, and birds could access each FDS as much as they liked. Twelve chicks each were tested at low (50% carbon dioxide [CO2] in air, 70% argon [Ar] in CO2, 70% nitrogen [N2] in CO2), medium (55% CO2 in air, 80% Ar in CO2, 80% N2 in CO2) or high (60% CO2 in air, 90% Ar in CO2, 90% N2 in CO2) concentrations of gas mixtures. Aversion was assessed based on the time birds spent with head in each FDS (with more time indicating less aversive), and the frequency of head shakes relative to time spent with head in the FDS (with a lower proportion indicating less aversive). Data were analysed by ANOVA. On average, birds spent < 3 min with their head in any FDS. Mixtures containing 90% Ar or N2 in CO2 and 80% argon in CO2 were least aversive and mixtures containing 70% N2 in CO2 and 60% CO2 in air were most aversive, based on time spent with head in. Head shakes s−1 were more frequent with low concentration gas mixtures compared to high concentrations, and with all CO2 in air mixtures, which suggests that the intensity of head shaking is related to the concentrations of CO2. From these results, one concentration of each of the three gas mixtures (90% N2 in CO2, 80% Ar in CO2, and 50% CO2 in air) were chosen for assessment on a further 12 birds and the results showed that both inert gas mixtures were less aversive than 50% CO2 in air based on time spent with head in. Frequency of head shakes s−1 did not differ between the three mixtures. Birds found all gases aversive, however it is concluded that inert gas in CO2 mixtures were least aversive compared to CO2 in air and these gases also caused less signs of respiratory discomfort.

Personalised identification (ID) tags that contain the contact information of pet owners can help ensure a pet gets home quickly. Recent research found that even though ID tags can help get pets home, the majority of pet owners do not consistently provide ID tags. The objectives of this study were to identify the number of animals at our study site wearing an ID tag as well as the owners’ reasons for not having them do so and to evaluate the attitudes and perceptions of owners towards pet identification. Pet owners were surveyed when visiting one of five veterinary hospitals and a low cost spay/neuter clinic in Oklahoma City, USA. Out of the 291 pets in the survey, only 59 (20.3%) were currently wearing an ID tag with correct information. When asked how important it was for pets to wear identification, 79.6% of the surveyed pet owners reported it was very or extremely important with only 0.7% reporting that ID tags were not at all important. The most common reason for not placing a tag on their pet was that their pet was ‘indoor only’ (35.3%), with another 10% reporting their pet did not wear ID because the pet was uncomfortable wearing a collar. The results of this research suggest that a high percentage of pets do not have ID tags and that a programme to place ID tags directly onto the pets has a good potential for success, as there is a positive attitude toward tagging among pet owners.

The integration of outcome-based measurements to animal welfare assessment programmes can provide a new perspective on the individual animal's experience. Identifying variability in individual experiences can facilitate understanding of animals at the periphery of the welfare spectrum, compared to those at the average. Welfare Quality® physical measurements and behavioural observations were taken from the same fifteen non-cage laying hens throughout their production cycle. The average amount of time performing each of nine behaviours and the amount of variation in each behaviour's performance was compared at four different ages: 19, 28, 48 and 66 weeks. The same analysis was performed for all Welfare Quality® physical measurements. To identify associations between a hen's behaviour and her physical condition, a cluster analysis was performed for all ages, as well as on data collated from all ages. No differences were observed among the four ages for the average amount of time performing many of the behaviours, but the amount of variability differed for most behaviours observed. Physical measurements taken at 19 weeks differed from those taken at later ages. Bodyweight consistently clustered with time spent preening, yet the patterns of clustering differed at each age. These results highlight the importance of age when conducting welfare assessments. Auditors also should report not only the average, but the variability of responses; while the average response of the flock may appear consistent across time or treatment, differences among the hens within the same flock may vary drastically.

Vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) encounter a plethora of anthropogenic risks as a result of their ability to exploit humanaltered environments. A systematic assessment of these risks has not been carried out to date. Here, we aim to begin addressing this gap in our understanding of human-vervet conflict in South Africa. We present a descriptive analysis of the intake of the Vervet Monkey Foundation (VMF) — a specialist vervet monkey rehabilitation centre and sanctuary in the Limpopo Province. Between October 2003 and March 2012 almost 200 vervet monkeys arrived at the VMF. At least 161 infants arrived with a steady decrease in annual intake over time, most probably due to the increasing number of other centres in the province. Detailed data for all age classes were available from March 2009 to March 2012. Of the 50 monkeys that arrived during this period, more young monkeys (infants and juveniles) than adults arrived and more infants than juveniles. Intake of injured and uninjured monkeys was equal. The majority of injuries were caused by cars and the majority of uninjured arrivals were ex-pets handed over voluntarily. A distinct temporal pattern of arrival, peaking in the austral summer, coincides with the birthing season of vervet monkeys in South Africa. The merits of publishing such records and the welfare implications of the perceptions of and objections to these ‘pest’ primates are discussed.

Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) are a widely used model species in parasitology and epilepsy research. Under standard laboratory housing conditions gerbils develop stereotypic digging, a behavioural abnormality, which is caused by the lack of a burrow in the laboratory cage. Here we show that gerbils reared with access to an opaque artificial burrow (nest-box with access tube) develop significantly less stereotypic digging than those reared with transparent artificial burrows. Subadult gerbils also preferred opaque artificial burrows to transparent ones. Based on these findings we developed an artificial burrow system that could be integrated into laboratory Makrolon Type IV cages to prevent the development of stereotypic digging in gerbils by addressing their behavioural needs. Faecal cortisol levels were measured as a non-invasive method of comparing stress reactions in gerbils given access to the new integrated artificial burrow system or to an equivalent transparent burrow. Behavioural differences were observed between gerbils in the two housing conditions, but faecal cortisol levels were unaffected. We conclude that simple refinement of housing is effective in improving gerbil welfare in the laboratory.

The Welfare Quality® project was one of the largest research undertakings into animal welfare. Despite animal-based measures (ABMs) being increasingly preferred over resource-based measures (non-ABMs), the Welfare Quality® protocol (WQ) for dairy cattle has a non-ABM, Ease of Movement that classifies housing systems using a threshold of 100 days of access to pasture or, inversely, of 265 days tethered. Since traditional transhumance to alpine pastures lasts for approximately 90 days most farms tend to be classified as having a year-round tie-stall system by the WQ. The aim of this study was two-fold: to discuss the appropriateness of using non-ABMs and related thresholds in welfare scoring and to classify mountain dairy farms using ABM records. Initially, a comparison was made with scores obtained using the WQ protocol in farms where cows were: i) tethered all year; and ii) tethered but having regular exercise or reared in loose-housing systems. No difference in terms of welfare was detected between groups of farms regarding their housing systems, thus we investigated welfare focusing on ABMs. Therefore, farms were grouped into four clusters, according to their ABMs. The results indicated that good ABM scores can be obtained in most traditional mountain farms where cows are tethered for around 275 days a year and have access to highland pasture for the remaining 90 days. In this study, ABMs were effective tools for classifying mountain farms according to their welfare status and for informing targeted action to improve dairy cow welfare.

The study examined cattle farmers' and veterinarians' opinions of pain-induced distress associated with disbudding and attitudes towards non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). An emphasis was placed on investigating pain perception, veterinary-client communication and factors influencing analgesic use. Data were collected from an online questionnaire, links to which were published in professional periodicals, promoted by industry organisations and distributed on private practice mailing lists. A total of 110 veterinarians and 116 farmers who regularly disbud calves completed the questionnaires. Of the respondents, 56% of veterinarians and 14% of farmers routinely use NSAIDs for disbudding. Respondents perceived disbudding to be severely painful without medication and 82% of veterinarians and 43% of farmers perceived post-procedural pain to persist beyond 24 h. There was a significant difference between female and male veterinarians' pain scores for disbudding without medication. Veterinarians underestimate the influences of welfare and analgesic duration and effectiveness on farmers' decisions and overrated cost impact. The study highlights that improvements in veterinarian-farmer communication regarding calf disbudding analgesia are required; both in terms of refining veterinarians' understanding of farmers' priorities and guiding clients on methods to improve calf welfare.

The confined environment of the dog shelter, particularly over extensive time-periods can impact severely on welfare. Surveillance and assessment are therefore essential components of the welfare protocol. The aim of this study was to generate a descriptive analysis of a sample of Italian long-term shelters and identify potential hazards regarding the welfare of shelter dogs. This was achieved through application of the Shelter Quality Protocol (SQP) to link income/outcome variables and the inclusion of sixty-four long-term shelters in Italy. Descriptive and logistic regression analyses were conducted. Key findings showed feeding regime, type of diet and access to outdoor area to be significantly associated with inadequate body condition score (BCS). The probability of observing skin lesions was shown to be influenced by bedding inadequacy and bedding type. Limiting beds to one per dog and utilising clean bedding materials was significantly associated with a reduced probability of observing dirty/wet dogs. Protection from adverse weather conditions and inadequate bedding were significantly associated with the manifestation of polypnea. Non-existent dog training facilities, outdoor access or leash walking were all found to significantly increase the likelihood of fearful or aggressive attitudes to people. Outdoor access also, in conjunction with feeding regime, was associated with the presence of diarrhoea. The SQP proved useful in identifying welfare hazards, both as regards shelter environment and shelter management. Identification of these hazards creates the opportunity for interventions to be applied, minimising the risks and improving the welfare of long-term shelter dogs.

There is widespread transport of reptiles for the pet trade throughout the world and the ‘dead on arrival’ rates are high. The eastern blue tongued (EBT) lizard (Tiliqua scincoides; Order: Squamata; suborder: Lacertilia) is particularly popular due to its unusual blue tongue. Noise, vibration and thermal discomfort are known contributors to transport stress. We analysed the behaviour of EBT lizards (n = 9) when exposed to four of these stimuli in a changeover design. Lizards were exposed to Heat (35°C), Cold (15°C), high or low frequency noise or a Control treatment with no stimulus in a test chamber for a 5-s period. Heating blankets and ice packs were used to create the hot and cold temperature stimuli in the test chamber, and a speaker broadcast noise/vibration from a truck recording. The test chamber was connected to an escape chamber, accessible after exposure to the stimulus, and a small hiding chamber opposite the test chamber. Lizard behaviour was monitored during stimulus exposure and then for a further 15 min, after which each lizard was removed. Lizards exposed to Cold spent less time in the test chamber (330 vs 434 s) and more time inactive in the escape chamber (148 vs 40 s). They also spent longer walking towards the hiding chamber (18.0 vs 10.5 s) and walking in the hiding chamber away from the stimulus (3.6 vs 2.3 s). We conclude that cold temperatures are potentially noxious for lizards in a simulated transport environment as they reduce activity and increase escape attempts.