Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-g8jcs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T23:06:16.910Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Why is There no Simple Way of Measuring AnimalWelfare?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

G Mason  and
M Mendl
G Mason*
Affiliation:
Sub-department of Animal Behaviour, University of Cambridge, Madingley, Cambridge CB3 8AA, UK and Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge
M Mendl
Affiliation:
Sub-department of Animal Behaviour, University of Cambridge, Madingley, Cambridge CB3 8AA, UK and Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge
*
† Contact for correspondence and requestsfor reprints
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Although the physiological and behavioural changes that can indicate poor welfareare generally agreed upon, using these measures in practice sometimes yieldsresults that are hard to interpret. For example, different types of measure maysuggest quite different things about an animal's welfare. Suchcontradictions are often due to the differing properties of the variables beingmeasured. How each variable responds to a stressor can be affected by severalfactors - the type of unpleasant stimulus to which the animal is exposed; whenand for how long exposure occurs; the animal's psychological state, egdoes it feel that it is in control?; and the time at which the measurement ismade, relative to the stressor. Typical responses also often differ betweenspecies and between individuals, and may even change in a single individual overtime. Furthermore, some responses used to assess welfare lack specificity: theycan be elicited by neutral or even pleasant events as well as by aversive ones.Appreciating these factors is vital when designing experiments, when choosingwhat to measure along with each welfare variable, and when interpreting results.Even after taking these factors into consideration, interpreting a result canstill be difficult. One approach then is to consider the effects on welfare ofthe changes measured, eg if there is immunosuppression, does the animal succumbto disease? Another is to use the animal's behaviour to indicate itspreference for, or aversion to, particular environments. Ultimately, however,interpreting welfare measures involves subjective judgements which will beinfluenced by the nature of our concern for the animal under consideration. Byraising these problems, we hope that this review will highlight and clarify theapparent contradictions that sometimes emerge in scientific studies of animalwelfare, and help researchers improve the designs of their experiments for thebenefit of the animals concerned.

Keywords

animal welfareexperimental designmeasurementstress
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 2 , Issue 4 , November 1993 , pp. 301 - 319
Copyright
© 1993 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

Footnotes

1

Present address: Scottish Agricultural College, Edinburgh, UK

References

Archer, J 1973 Tests for emotionality in rats and mice: a review. Animal Behaviour 21: 205–235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archer, J 1979a Animals Under Stress. Edward Arnold: LondonGoogle Scholar
Archer, J 1979b Behavioural aspects of fear. In Sluckin, W (ed) Fear in Animals and Man pp 56–85. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Baldock, N M and Sibly, R M 1990 Effects of handling and transportation on the heart rate and behaviour of sheep. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 28: 15–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, J L and Hemsworth, P H 1990 The validity of physiological and behavioural measures of animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 25: 177–187CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnett, J L, Hemsworth, P H and Winfield, C G 1987 The effects of design of individual stalls on the social behaviour and physiological responses related to the welfare of pregnant pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 18: 133–142CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bateson, PPG 1991 Assessment of pain in animals. Animal Behaviour 42: 827–839CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1987 Individual differences in behavioural reaction to a changing environment in mice and rats. Behaviour 100: 105–122CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1988 Aggression and adaptation to the light-dark cycle: role of intrinsic and extrinsic control. Physiology and Behaviour 43: 131–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1992 Individual strategies of aggressive and non-aggressive male mice in encounters with trained residents. Animal Behaviour 43: 531–540CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Bohus B, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1989 Behavioural strategies of aggressive and non-aggressive male mice in active shock avoidance. Behavioural Processes 20: 1–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Bohus B, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1990b Behavioural strategies of aggressive and non-aggressive male mice in response to inescapable shock. Behavioural Processes 21: 127–141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Bohus B, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1991 Behavioural differences between artificially selected aggressive and non-aggressive mice: response to apomorphine. Behaviour and Brain Research 43: 203–208CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benus R F, Daas S den, Koolhaas J M and Oortmerssen G A van 1990a Routine information and flexibility in social and non-social behaviour of aggressive and nonaggressive male mice. Behaviour 112: 176–193CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beuving, G 1983 Corticosteroids in welfare research of laying hens. In Smidt, D (ed) Indicators Relevant to Farm Animal Welfare pp 47–53. Martinus Nijhoff: The HagueCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolles, R C 1970 Species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning. Psychological Review 77: 32–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borell, E von and Ladewig, J 1989 Altered adrenocortical response to acute stressors or ACTH (1-24) in intensively housed pigs. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 6: 299–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borell, E von and Ladewig, J 1992 Relationship between behaviour and adrenocortical response pattern in domestic pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 34: 195–206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bredbacka, P 1988 Relationships between fear, welfare, and productive traits in caged white leghorn hens. In Unshelm, J, Putten, G van, Zeeb, K and Ekesbo, I (eds) Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology in Farm Animals, Skara pp 74–79. KTBL: DarmstadtGoogle Scholar
Broom, D M 1991 Assessing welfare and suffering. Behavioural Processes 25: 117–123CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, D M and Johnson, K (in press) Stress and Animal Welfare. Chapman and Hall: LondonGoogle Scholar
Burdick, J A 1978 A review of heart rate variability and evaluation. Perception and Motor Skills 47: 95–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos, J J 1976 Heart rate: a sensitive tool for the study of emotional development in the infant. In Lipsitt, L P (ed) Developmental Psychology - the Significance of Infancy pp 1–31. Lawrence Erlbaum: Hilldale, New JerseyGoogle Scholar
Christian, J J and Davis, D E 1964 Endocrines, behavior, and population. Science 146: 1550–1560CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen-Cole, S, Cogen, R, Stevens, A, Kirk, K, Gaitan, E, Hain, J and Freeman, A 1981 Psychosocial, endocrine and immune factors in acute necrotizing gingivitis. Psychosomatic Medicine 43: 91 (Abstract)Google Scholar
Cooper, T R, Trunkfield, H R, Zanella, A J and Booth, W D 1989 An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Cortisol in the saliva of man and domestic farm animals. Journal of Endocrinology 123: R13–R16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cross, B 1989 The physiological (neurological) basis of fear. In Gibson, T E (ed) The Detection and Control of Fear in Animals, Proceedings of the BVA Animal Welfare Foundation 8th Symposium pp 5–14. BVA Animal Welfare Foundation: LondonGoogle Scholar
Daly, M 1977 Early stimulation of rodents: a critical review of present interpretations. British Journal of Psychology 64: 435–460CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dantzer, R and Mormède, P 1985 Stress in domestic animals: a psycho-neuroendocrine approach. In Moberg, G P (ed) Animal Stress pp 81–95. American Physiological Society: BethesdaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dantzer, R, Mormède, P and Henry, J P 1983a Physiological assessment of adaptation in farm animals. In Baxter, S H, Baxter, M R and McCormack, JAD (eds) Farm Animal Housing and Welfare pp 8–19. Martinus Nijhoff: The HagueGoogle Scholar
Dantzer, R, Mormède, P and Henry, J P 1983b The significance of physiological criteria in assessing animal welfare. In Smidt, D (ed) Indicators Relevant to Assessing Farm Animal Welfare pp 29–37. Martinus Nijhoff: The HagueCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dantzer R, Terlouw C, Tazi A, Koolhaas J M, Bohus B, Koob G F and Moal M le 1988 The propensity for schedule-induced polydipsia is related to differences in conditioned avoidance behaviour and in defence reactions in a defeat test. Physiology and Behaviour 43: 269–272CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, M 1980 Animal Suffering: The Science of Animal Welfare. Chapman and Hall: LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, M 1983 Battery hens name their price: consumer demand theory and the measurement of ethological ‘needs’. Animal Behaviour 31: 1195–1205CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, M 1988 Behavioural deprivation: a central problem in animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 20: 209–225CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, M 1990 From an animal’s point of view: motivation, fitness and animal welfare. Behavioural and Brain Sciences 13: 1–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorian, B J, Keystone, E, Garfinkel, P E and Brown, G M 1981 Immune mechanisms in acute psychological stress. Psychosomatic Medicine 43: 84 (Abstract)Google Scholar
Duncan, I J H 1985 How do fearful birds respond? In Wegner R M (ed) Proceedings of the Second European Symposium on Poultry Welfare pp 96–106. World Poultry Science Association: CelleGoogle Scholar
Duncan, IJH and Petherick, J C 1989 Cognition: the implications for animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 24: 81 (Abstract)Google Scholar
Fentress, J C 1976 Dynamic boundaries of patterned behaviour: interaction and self-organisation. In Bateson, PPG and Hinde, R A (eds) Growing Points in Ethology pp 135–168. Cambridge University Press: CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Fowler, M E 1986 Stress. In Fowler, M E (ed) Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, 2nd edition pp 34–35. Saunders: PhiladelphiaGoogle Scholar
Fox, M W 1984 Farm Animals: Husbandry, Behavior and Veterinary Practice. University Park Press: BaltimoreGoogle Scholar
Fraser, A F and Broom, D M 1990 Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare. Baillière-Tindall: LondonGoogle Scholar
Gray, J A 1987 The Psychology of Fear and Stress, 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press: CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Hemsworth, P H, Barnett, J L and Hansen, C 1986 The influence of handling by humans on the behaviour, reproduction and corticosteroids of male and female pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 15: 303–314CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hemsworth, P H, Barnett, J L and Hansen, C 1987 The influence of inconsistent handling by humans on the behaviour, growth and corticosteroids of young pigs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 17: 245–252CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, J P, Ely, D L, Stephens Ο, P M, Ratcliffe, H L, Santisteban, G A and Shapiro, A P 1971 The role of psychosocial factors in the development of atherosclerosis in CBA Mice. Atherosclerosis 14: 203–218CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbert, J 1987 Neuroendocrine responses to social stress. Baillière’s Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1: 467–490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoist, D von, Fuchs, E and Stohr, W 1983 Physiological changes in male Tupaia belangeri under different types of social stress. In Dembroski T M, Schmidt T H and Blumchen G (eds) Biobehavioral Bases of Coronary Heart Disease pp 382-390. Karger. BaselGoogle Scholar
Kagan, J, Reznick, J S and Snidman, N 1988 Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science 240: 167–171CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzev, R D and Mills, S K 1974 Strain differences in avoidance conditioning as a function of the classical CS-US contingency. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology 87: 661–671CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennes D and Rycke P H de 1988 The influence of the performance of stereotypies on plasma corticosterone and eosinophil levels in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). In Unshelm, J, Putten, G van, Zeeb, K and Ekesbo, I (eds) Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology in Farm Animals, Skara pp 238–240. KTBL: DarmstadtGoogle Scholar
Kristensen, M P and Jeppesen, L L 1988 Effects of experimentally-induced stress on Cortisol, blood cell parameters and exploratory behaviour in farmed foxes. Scientifur 12: 169–176Google Scholar
Ladewig, J 1984 The effect of behavioural stress on the episodic release and circadian variation of Cortisol in bulls. In Unshelm, J, Putten, G van and Zeeb, K (eds) Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology in Farm Animals, Kiel pp 339–342. KTBL: DarmstadtGoogle Scholar
Ladewig, J 1987 Endocrine aspects of stress: evaluation of stress reactions in farm animals. In Wiepkema P R and Adrichem P W M van (eds) The Biology of Stress in Farm Animals: An Integrated Approach pp 13–25. Martinus Nijhoff: DordrechtCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ladewig, J 1990 Physiological stress responses in large farm animals. Paper given at the Workshop on Stress and Abnormal Behaviour, Elsinor, Denmark, Sept 1990Google Scholar
Ladewig J and Borcll E von 1988 Ethological methods alone are not sufficient to measure the impact of environment on animal health and animal well-being. In Unshelm, J, Putten, G van, Zeeb, K and Ekesbo, I (eds) Proceedings of the International Congress on Applied Ethology in Farm Animals, Skara pp 95–102. KTBL: DarmstadtGoogle Scholar
Ladewig, J and Smidt, D 1989 Behaviour, episodic secretion of Cortisol and adrenocortical reactivity in bulls subjected to tethering. Hormones and Behaviour 23: 344–360CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lundberg, U and Forsmann, L 1979 Adrenal-medullary and adrenal cortical responses to understimulation and overstimulation: a comparison between Type A and Type B persons. Biological Psychology 9: 79–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lyons, D M, Price, E O and Moberg, G P 1988 Social modulation of pituitary-adrenal responses and individual differences in behaviour of young domesticated goats. Physiology and Behaviour 43: 451–458CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCune, S 1992 Temperament and the Welfare of Caged Cats. PhD thesis, University of CambridgeGoogle Scholar
MacSwecn, R N M and Whaley, K (eds) 1992 Muir’s Textbook of Pathology, 13th edition. Edward Arnold: LondonGoogle Scholar
Manser, C E 1992 The Assessment of Stress in Laboratory Animals. RSPCA: HorshamGoogle Scholar
Martin, P 1989 Psychoimmunology - relations between brain, behaviour and immune function. In Bateson, P P G and Klopfer, P H (eds) Whither Ethology?, Volume 8 of Perspectives in Ethology pp 173–214. Plenum Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Martinet, L, Allain, D and Chabi, Y 1985 Pineal denervation by cervical sympathetic ganglionectomy suppresses the role of photoperiod on pregnancy or pseudopregnancy, body weight and moulting periods in the mink (Mustela vison). Journal of Endocrinology 107: 31–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinet, L, Ravault, J P and Meunier, M 1982 Seasonal variations in mink (Mustela vison) plasma prolactin measured by heterologous radioimmunoassay. General and Comparative Endocrinology 48: 71–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, G J 1991a Stereotypies: a critical review. Animal Behaviour 41: 1015–1037CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, G J 1991b Stereotypies and suffering. Behavioural Processes 25: 103–115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, G J 1993 Forms of stereotypic behaviour. In Lawrence, A B and Rushen, J (eds) Stereotypic Animal Behaviour: Fundamentals and Applications to Animal Welfare pp 7–40. CAB: WallingfordGoogle Scholar
Mason, J W 1971 A re-evaluation of the concept of ‘non-specificity’ in stress theory. Journal of Psychiatric Research 8: 323–333CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendl, M 1991 Some problems with the concept of a cut-off point for determining when an animal’s welfare is at risk. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 31: 139–146CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mendl, M and Harcourt, R 1988 Individuality in the domestic cat. In Turner, D C and Bateson, P (eds) The Domestic Cat: The Biology of its Behaviour pp 41–54. Cambridge University Press: CambridgeGoogle Scholar
Mendl, M, Zanella, A J and Broom, D M 1992 Physiological and reproductive correlates of behavioural strategies in female domestic pigs. Animal Behaviour 44: 1107–1121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, G P 1985a Influence of stress on reproduction: measure of well-being. In Moberg, G P (ed) Animal Stress pp 245–267. American Physiological Society: BethesdaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moberg, G P 1985b Problems in defining stress and distress in animals. In Moberg, G P (ed) Animal Stress pp 26–49. American Physiological Society: BethesdaCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moody, F G, Cheung, L Y, Simons, M A and Zalewsky, C 1976 Stress and the acute gastric mucosal lesion. Digestive Diseases 21: 148–154CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ödberg, F 1989 Adaptation: a boon and a nuisance. Paper given at the International Ethological Congress, UtrechtGoogle Scholar
Oortmerssen, G A van and Bakker, T C M 1981 Artificial selection for short and long attack latencies in wild Mus musculus domesticus. Behavioural Genetics 11: 115–126CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parrott, R F, Misson, B N and Baldwin, B A 1989 Salivary Cortisol in pigs following adrenocorticotrophic hormone stimulation: comparison with plasma levels. British Veterinary Journal 145: 362–366CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pederson, V and Jeppesen, L L 1990 Effects of early handling on later behaviour and stress responses in the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 26: 383–393CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfister, H P 1979 The glucocorticosterone response to novelty as a psychological stressor. Physiology and Behaviour 23: 649–652CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rice, R P 1967 The mink: a short outline of general management. Journal of the Institute of Animal Technicians 18: 66–79Google Scholar
Robbins, T W, Mittleman, G, O’Brien, J and Winn, P 1990 The neurophysiological significance of stereotypy induced by stimulant drugs. In Cooper, S J and Dourish, C T (eds) Neurobiology of Stereotyped Behaviour pp 25–63. Clarendon: OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushen, J 1986 Some problems with the physiological concept of ‘stress’. Australian Veterinary Journal 63: 359–361CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushen, J 1991 Problems associated with the interpretation of physiological data in the assessment of animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 28: 381–386CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushen, J and de Passillé, A M B 1992 The scientific assessment of the impact of housing on animal welfare. Canadian Journal of Animal Science 72: 721–743CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandøe, P and Simonsen, H P 1992 Assessing animal welfare: where does science end and philosophy begin? Animal Welfare 1: 257–267CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawrey, W L, Conger, J J and Turrell, E S 1956 An experimental investigation of the role of psychological factors in the production of gastric ulcers in rats. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology 49: 457–461CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selye, H 1979 Stress. In Day, S B (ed) A Companion to the Life Sciences, volume 1. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Suomi, S J 1987 Genetic and maternal contributions to individual differences in rhesus monkey biobehavioral development. In Krasnegor, N A, Blass, E M, Hofer, M A and Smotherman, W P (eds) Perinatal Development: A Psychobiological Perspective. Academic Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar
Szechtman, H, Lambrou, P J, Caggiula, A R, and Redgate, E S 1974 Plasma corticosterone levels during sexual behaviour in male rats. Hormones and Behaviour 5: 191–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trunkfield, H R, Broom, D M, Maatje, K, Wierenga, H K, Lambooy, E and Kooijman, J 1991 Effects of housing on responses of veal calves to handling and transport. In Metz, J H M and Groenestein, C M (eds) New Trends in Veal Calf Production pp 40–43. Wageningen Pudoc: WageningenGoogle Scholar
Walker, C D, Lightman, S L, Steele, M K and Dallaman, M F 1992 Suckling is a persistent stimulus to the adreno-cortical system of the rat. Endocrinology 130: 115–125CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wegner, R M 1983 Production performance in laying hens kept under different housing systems. In Smidt, D (ed) Indicators Relevant to Farm Animal Welfare pp 186–196. Martinus Nijhoff: The HagueGoogle Scholar
Weiss, J M 1968 Effects of coping responses on stress. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology 65: 251–260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, J M 1971 Effects of coping behaviour in different warning signal conditions on stress pathology in rats. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology 77: 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wemelsfelder, F 1993 Animal Boredom: Towards an Empirical Approach of Animal Subjectivity. PhD thesis, University of LeidenGoogle Scholar
Wiepkema, P R 1987 Behavioural aspects of stress. In Adrichem, P W M van and Wiepkema, P R (eds) The Biology of Stress in Farm Animals: An Integrated Approach pp 113–134. Martinus Nijhoff: DordrechtCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiepkema, P R, Hellemond, K K van, Roessingh, P and Romberg, H 1987 Behaviour and abomasal damage in individual veal calves. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 18: 257–268CrossRefGoogle Scholar