Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T03:29:03.743Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Welfare concerns associated with captive lions (Panthera leo) and the implications for commercial lion farms in South Africa

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

J Green ,
C Jakins ,
E Asfaw ,
A Parker ,
L de Waal  and
N D'Cruze
J Green
Affiliation:
World Animal Protection, 222 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8HB, UK
C Jakins
Affiliation:
Blood Lions NPC, PO Box 1154, Hermanus 7200, South Africa
E Asfaw
Affiliation:
World Animal Protection, 222 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8HB, UK
A Parker
Affiliation:
World Animal Protection, 222 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8HB, UK
L de Waal
Affiliation:
Blood Lions NPC, PO Box 1154, Hermanus 7200, South Africa
N D'Cruze*
Affiliation:
World Animal Protection, 222 Gray's Inn Rd, London WC1X 8HB, UK Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Tubney House, Abingdon Road, Tubney, Abingdon OX13 5QL, UK
*
* Contact for correspondence: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Breeding and housing wild animals in captive environments can pose challenges for their welfare. In South Africa, thousands of lions (Panthera leo) are bred and raised at commercial captive breeding facilities, so called ‘lion farms’, for use in tourism, trophy hunting and traditional medicine. To gain a better understanding of the potential welfare challenges faced by lions on farms we reviewed 91 peer-reviewed articles relating to lion welfare, identified via a systematic review of the scientific literature. Across these studies, we identified 170 different terms relating to negative behaviours and physical health afflictions. The majority of these terms were associated with disease and injury (124; 73%), followed by negative behaviours (19; 11%), negative mental experiences (15; 9%), nutritional concerns (7; 4%), and environmental challenges or discomfort arising from the animal's surroundings (5; 3%). Of the 91 articles, 32 (35%) focused on data concerning captive lions. Only two studies focused specifically on data obtained from lion farms in South Africa, whilst the remainder reported on data collected from zoos, wildlife parks, sanctuaries, game reserves and private ownership. Our preliminary review of the scientific literature draws attention to some of the challenges associated with caring for lions in captivity, and outlines the potential significance of these welfare challenges for commercial lion farms. Our data highlight the apparent lack of scientific research involving captive lion welfare generally, particularly data collected at commercial breeding facilities in South Africa and the consequences this could have for the welfare of thousands of lions within the industry.

Keywords

animal welfarecaptive wildlifelion farmsPanthera leoSouth Africawildlife farming
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , May 2022 , pp. 209 - 218
Copyright
© 2022 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Ahasan, MS, Subramaniam, K, Sayler, KA, Loeb, JC, Popov, VL, Lednicky, JA, Wisely, SM, Krauer, JMC and Waltzek, TB 2019 Molecular characterization of a novel reassortment Mammalian orthoreovirus type 2 isolated from a Florida white-tailed deer fawn. Virus Research 270: 197642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2019.197642CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, SE, Cain, R, Van Kesteren, F, Zommers, ZA, D’Cruze, N and Macdonald, DW 2013 Rough trade: animal welfare in the global wildlife trade. BioScience 63: 928–938. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2013.63.12.6Google Scholar
Bauer, H, Nowell, K, Sillero-Zubiri, C and Macdonald, DW 2018 Lions in the modern arena of CITES. Conservation Letters 11: e12444. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12444CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beausoleil, NJ, Mellor, DJ, Baker, L, Baker, SE, Bellio, M, Clarke, A, Dale, A, Garlick, S, Jones, B, Harvey, A, Pitcher, B, Sherwen, S, Stockin, K and Zito, S 2018 ‘‘Feelings and fitness’ not ‘feelings or fitness’ – the raison d'etre of conservation welfare, which aligns conservation and animal welfare objectives’. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 5: 296. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2018.00296CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, MA and Levander, OA 2000 Host nutritional status and its effect on a viral pathogen. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 182: S93–S96. https://doi.org/10.1086/315918CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Born Free Foundation 2018 Cash Before Conservation: An overview of the breeding of lions for hunting and bone trade. https://www.bornfree.org.uk/storage/media/content/files/Publicati ons/Born_Free_Lion_Breeding_Report.pdfGoogle Scholar
Caliendo, V, Bull, AC and Stidworthy, MF 2012 Congenital bil-iary tract malformation resembling biliary cystadenoma in a captive juvenile African lion (Panthera leo). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 43: 922–926. https://doi.org/10.1638/2011-0065R1.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carder, G, Plese, T, Machado, FC, Paterson, S, Matthews, N, McAnea, L and D’Cruze, N 2018 The impact of ‘selfie’ tourism on the behaviour and welfare of brown-throated three-toed sloths. Animals 8: 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8110216CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaber, A-L, Cozzi, G, Broekhuis, F, Hartley, RW and McNutt, J 2017 Serosurvey for selected viral pathogens among sympatric species of the African large predator guild in northern Botswana. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 53: 170–175. https://doi.org/10.7589/2015-11-302CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chandra, AS, Papendick, RE, Schumacher, J, Homer, BL and Wollenman, P 1999 Cerebellar herniation in captive lions (Panthera leo). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 11: 465–468. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063879901100514CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clubb, R and Mason, G 2003 Animal welfare: captivity effects on wide-ranging carnivores. Nature 425: 473. https://doi.org/10.1038/425473aCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clubb, R and Mason, GJ 2007 Natural behavioural biology as a risk factor in carnivore welfare: How analysing species differences could help zoos improve enclosures. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102: 303–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.033CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coals, P, Burnham, D, Loveridge, A, Macdonald, DW, Sas-Rolfes, M, 't Williams, VL and Vucetich, JA 2019 The ethics of human-animal relationships and public discourse: A case study of lions bred for their bones. Animals 9: 52. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9020052CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, E 2013 ‘Buddhist compassion’ and ‘animal abuse’ in Thailand's Tiger Temple. Society & Animals 21: 266–283. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685306-12341282CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Di Cesare, A, Laiacona, F, Iorio, R, Marangi, M and Menegotto, A 2016 Aelurostrongylus abstrusus in wild felids of South Africa. Parasitology Research 115: 3731–3735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-016-5134-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
EMS Foundation 2018 The extinction business: South Africa's ‘lion’ bone trade. EMA Foundation and Ban Animal Trading. https://ems-foundation.org.za/wp-content/THE-EXTINCTION-BUSINESS-South-Africas-lion-bone-Google Scholar
Environment Investigation Agency 2017 The lion's share: South Africa's trade exacerbates demand for tiger parts and derivative. Environment Investigation Agency. https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Lions-Share-FINAL-1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Eustace, R, Rubin, J, Thompson, KA, Snowdon, K, Sikarskie, JG, Monahan, C and Smedley, RC 2017 Diagnosis and treat-ment of a unilateral renal cystadenoma in an african lion (Panthera leo). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 48: 906–909. https://doi.org/10.1638/2016-0242.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fobar, R 2019a More than 100 neglected lions found in a South African breeding facility. National Geographic. https://www.national-geographic.co.uk/animals/2019/05/more-100-neglected-lions-dis-covered-south-africa-breeding-facilityGoogle Scholar
Fobar, R 2019b Exclusive: Inside a controversial South African lion farm. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/animals/2019/11/exclu-sive-inside-controversial-south-african-lion-farmGoogle Scholar
Gartner, MC, Powell, DM and Weiss, A 2016 Comparison of subjective well-being and personality assessments in the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), snow leopard (Panthera uncia), and African lion (Panthera leo). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 19: 294–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2016.1141057CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerhauser, I, Philipp, U, Distl, O and Beineke, A 2009 Multiple cyst formation in the liver and kidneys of a lion (Panthera leo): a case of polycystic kidney disease? European Journal of Wildlife Research 55: 433–437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-009-0260-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, J, Jakins, C, Asfaw, E, Bruschi, N, Parker, A, de Waal, L and D’Cruze, N 2020 African lions and zoonotic diseases: Implications for commercial lion farms in South Africa. Animals 10: 1692. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10091692CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, J, Jakins, C, de Waal, L and D’Cruze, N 2021 Ending commercial lion farming in South Africa: A gap analysis approach. Animals 11: 1717. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11061717CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, TM, McKnight, CA, Sikarskie, JG, Kitchell, BE, Garner, MM, Raymond, JT, Fitzgerald, SD, Valli, VE, Agnew, D and Kiupel, M 2010 Malignant lymphoma in African lions (Panthera leo). Veterinary Pathology 47: 952–957. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300985810375054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartman, MJ, Monnet, E, Kirberger, RM and Schoeman, JP 2015 Effect of portal access system and surgery type on surgery times during laparoscopic ovariectomy and salpingectomy in captive African lions and cheetahs. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 58: 18CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harvey, R 2019 The economics of captive predator breeding in South Africa. South African Institute of International Affairs: Johannesburg, South AfricaGoogle Scholar
High level panel report 2021 https://www.environment.gov.za/sites/default/files/reports/2020-12-22_high-levelpanel_report.pdfGoogle Scholar
Hinsley, A and Rust, N 2019 Lion and tiger farming may be inhu-mane, but we don't know if it increases poaching. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/lion-and-tiger-farming-may-be-inhu-mane-but-we-dont-know-if-it-increases-poaching-120040Google Scholar
Hutchinson, A and Roberts, DL 2020 Differentiating captive and wild African lion (Panthera leo) populations in South Africa, using stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis. Biodiversity and Conservation: 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-020-01972-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapoor, V, Antonelli, T, Parkinson, JA and Hartstone-Rose, A 2016 Oral health correlates of captivity. Research in Veterinary Science 107: 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2016.06.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, B 2019 108 neglected lions found on South African breeding farm. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/108-neglected-lions-found-south-african-breeding-farm-180972146/Google Scholar
Khan, BN, Ahmad, R, Ali, Z, Mehmood, S, Raza, H, Azhar, M and Zakir, A 2018 Impact of different captive environmental con-ditions on behavior of African Lions and their welfare at Lahore Zoo and Safari Zoo, Lahore. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 50(2). https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/2018.50.2.523.531CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohari, D, Sunada, A, Matsui, Y, Ootaki, A and Hori, H 2017 Behavioral restriction effects on activity motivation of a captive lion (Panthera leo persica). Journal of Veterinary Behavior 17: 14–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2016.11.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, EP, Brettschneider, H, Caldwell, P, Oosthuizen, A, Dalton, DL, du Plessis, L, Steyl, J and Kotze, A 2016 Feline pan-leukopaenia virus in captive non-domestic felids in South Africa. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 83: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.4102/ojvr.v83i1.1099CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsey, P, Alexander, R, Balme, G, Midlane, N and Craig, J 2012 Possible relationships between the South African captive-bred lion hunting industry and the hunting and conservation of lions elsewhere in Africa. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 42: 11–22. https://doi.org/10.3957/056.042.0103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacDonald, D 2016 Report on lion conservation with particular respect to the issue of trophy hunting. WildCru: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Maratea, KA, Hooser, SB and Ramos-Vara, JA 2006 Degenerative myelopathy and vitamin A deficiency in a young black-maned lion (Panthera leo). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 18: 608–611. https://doi.org/10.1177/104063870601800617CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martínez-Macipe, M, Lafont-Lecuelle, C, Manteca, X, Pageat, P and Cozzi, A 2015 Evaluation of an innovative approach for sensory enrichment in zoos: semiochemical stimulation for captive lions (Panthera leo). Animal Welfare 24: 455–461. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.24.4.455CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mellor, DJ 2016 Updating animal welfare thinking: Moving beyond the ‘Five Freedoms’ towards ‘a Life Worth Living.’ Animals 6: 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani6030021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moudgil, AD, Singla, LD and Singh, MP 2016 An issue of public health concern due to emerging drug resistance against Toxascaris leonina (Linstow 1909) in Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica). International Journal of Infectious Diseases 45: 105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2016.02.271CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norton, BB, Tunseth, D, Holder, K, Briggs, MC, Hayek, L-A and Murray, S 2018 Causes of morbidity in captive African lions (Panthera leo) in North America, 2001-2016. Zoo Biology 37: 354–359. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21435CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NSPCA 2017 Overview of inspection to lion breeding farms by the National Wildlife Protection Unit Inspectorate during the period March 2016–June 2017. National Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (NSPCA): Alberton, South AfricaGoogle Scholar
Olatunji-Akioye, AO, Omobowale, OT, Olaifa, AK and Abiola, JO 2010 Tail docking in an african lion (Panthera leo). Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine 65: 75–76Google Scholar
Pinnock, D 2020 Wildlife experts spurn invite to serve on environ-mental panel, indicating bias and co-optio. The Conversation. https://conservationaction.co.za/media-articles/wildlife-experts-spurn-invite-to-serve-on-environmental-panel-indicating-bias-and-co-optio/Google Scholar
Righton, AL, St Leger, JA, Schmitt, T, Murray, MJ, Adams, L and Fascetti, AJ 2011 Serum vitamin A concentrations in captive sea otters (Enhydra lutris). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 42: 124–127. https://doi.org/10.1638/2010-0011.1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smitz, N, Jouvenet, O, Ligate, FA, Crosmary, W-G, Ikanda, D, Chardonnet, P, Fusari, A, Meganck, K, Gillet, F and Melletti, M 2018 A genome-wide data assessment of the African lion (Panthera leo) population genetic structure and diversity in Tanzania. PLoS One 13: e0205395. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205395CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soso, SB and Koziel, JA 2017 Characterizing the scent and chemical composition of Panthera leo marking fluid using solid-phase microextraction and multidimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry. Scientific Reports 7: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04973-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suárez, P, Recuerda, P and Arias-de-Reyna, L 2017 Behaviour and welfare: The visitor effect in captive felids. Animal Welfare 26: 25–34. https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.26.1.025CrossRefGoogle Scholar
The Southern African Legal Information Institute (SAFLII) 2019 The Southern African Legal Information Institute (SAFLII). http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPPHC/2019/337.htmlGoogle Scholar
Trinkel, M, Cooper, D, Packer, C and Slotow, R 2011 Inbreeding depression increases susceptibility to bovine tubercu-losis in lions: an experimental test using an inbred-outbred contrast through translocation. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 47: 494–500. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-47.3.494CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van der Merwe, P, Saayman, M, Els, J and Saayman, A 2017 The economic significance of lion breeding operations in the South African Wildlife Industry. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 9: 314–322Google Scholar
Viljoen, IM, Van Helden, PD and Millar, RP 2015 Mycobacterium bovis infection in the lion (Panthera leo): Current knowledge, conun-drums and research challenges. Veterinary Microbiology 177: 252–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.03.028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welz, A 2018 The Ongoing Disgrace of South Africa's Captive-Bred Lion Trade. Yale Environment 360, Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies: USA. https://e360.yale.edu/features/the-ongoing-disgrace-of-south-africas-captive-bred-lion-tradeGoogle Scholar
Whitten, C, Vogelnest, L, D’Arcy, R, Thomson, P and Phalen, D 2019 A retrospective study of reported disorders of the oral cavity in large felids in Australian zoos. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 50: 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1638/2016-0170Google ScholarPubMed
Williams, V, Loveridge, AJ, Newton, DJ and Macdonald, DW 2015 ‘Skullduggery’: lions align and their mandibles rock! PLoS One 10: e0135144. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135144CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, V, Newton, D, Loveridge, A and Macdonald, D 2015 Bones of contention: As assessment of the South African trade in African Lion (Panthero leo) bones and other body parts. TRAFFIC and WildCRU. https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/2474/bones-of-contention-report-pdfGoogle Scholar
Williams, VL, Loveridge, AJ, Newton, DJ and Macdonald, DW 2017a A roaring trade? The legal trade in Panthera leo bones from Africa to East-Southeast Asia. PLoS One 12: e0185996. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185996CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, VL, Loveridge, AJ, Newton, DJ and Macdonald, DW 2017b Questionnaire survey of the pan-African trade in lion body parts. PLoS One 12: e0187060. https://doi.org/10.1371/jour-nal.pone.0187060CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, VL and 't Sas-Rolfes, MJ 2019 Born captive: A survey of the lion breeding, keeping and hunting industries in South Africa. PLoS One 14: e0217409. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217409CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, A 2019a South Africa's fallen pride: How law and government fail to protect lions. The Revelator, Center for Biological Diversity. https://therevelator.org/lion-hunting-south-africaGoogle Scholar
Wilson, A 2019b Animal Law in South Africa: Until the lions have their own lawyers, the law will continue to protect the hunter (No Vol 10/1). dA.Derecho Animal, Forum of Animal Law Studies. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/da.399CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Animal Protection 2019 Trading cruelty - how captive big cat farming fuels the traditional Asian medicine industry. https://d31j74p4lpxrfp.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/int_files/tr ading_cruelty_report.pdfGoogle Scholar
Xasa, F 2019 Committee Report on Colloquium on Captive Lion Breeding for Hunting in SA 21 & 22 August 2018 ATC181108: Report of the Portfolio Committee on Environmental Affairs on the Colloquium on Captive Lion Breeding for Hunting in South Africa: harming or pro-moting the conservation image of the country, held on 21 and 22 august 2018, dated 8 November 2018. Parliamentry Monitoring Group. https://pmg.org.za/committee-meeting/294351Google Scholar
Zucca, P, Baciadonna, L, Masci, S and Mariscoli, M 2011 Illness as a source of variation of laterality in lions (Panthera leo). Laterality 16: 356–366. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576501003690025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed