Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T17:14:53.506Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Measurement of aversion to determine humane methods of anaesthesia and euthanasia

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2023

MC Leach ,
VA Bowell ,
TF Allan  and
DB Morton
MC Leach*
Affiliation:
Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Langford House, Langford, Bristol B540 5DU, UK
VA Bowell
Affiliation:
Department of Animal Behaviour Sciences, Scottish Agricultural College, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, UK
TF Allan
Affiliation:
City University, Northampton Square, London ECIV 0HB, UK
DB Morton
Affiliation:
Biomedical Services Unit, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The distress experienced by animals during the induction of unconsciousness remains one of the most important and yet overlooked aspects of effective methods of anaesthesia and euthanasia. Here we show that considerable differences exist in the aversive responses elicited by 12 common methods of inhalational anaesthesia and euthanasia in laboratory rats and mice. Carbon dioxide, either alone or in combination with oxygen or argon, was found to be highly aversive to both species. The least aversive agents were halothane in rats and enflurane in mice. Exposing these animals to carbon dioxide in any form, either for anaesthesia or for euthanasia, is likely to cause considerable pain and distress and is therefore unacceptable when efficient and more humane alternatives are readily available.

Keywords

anaesthesiaanimal welfareaversioncarbon dioxideeuthanasiarodent
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 13 , Issue S1: Science in the Service of Animal Welfare: Proceedings of the UFAW International Symposium, Edinburgh, 2-4 April 2003 , February 2004 , pp. S77 - S86
Copyright
© 2004 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Ambrose, N 1999 Refinement of routine procedures on laboratory rodents. PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham, UK.Google Scholar
Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 Her Majesty's Stationery Office: London, UK. Available at: http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19963278_en_1.htm.Google Scholar
Anton, F, Euchner, I and Handwerker, H O 1992 Psychophysical examination of pain induced by defined CO2 pulses applied to the nasal mucosa. Pain 49: 53–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, R S, Rushman, G B and Davies, N J H 1993 Lee's Synopsis of Anaesthesia. Butterworth and Heinemann: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
AVMA 2000 Report of the AVMA panel on euthanasia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218: 669–696Google Scholar
Blackmore, D K 1993 Euthanasia: not always Eu. Australian Veterinary Journal 10: 409–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackshaw, J K, Fenwick, D C, Beattie, A W and Allan, D J 1988 The behaviour of chickens, mice and rats during euthanasia with chloroform, carbon dioxide and ether. Laboratory Animals 22: 67–75CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cochran, W G and Cox, G M 1967 Experimental Design. John Wiley and Sons: New York, USAGoogle Scholar
Coenen, A M L, Drinkenburg, W H I M, Hoenderken, R and van Luijtelaar, E L J M 1995 Carbon dioxide euthanasia in rats: oxygen supplementation minimizes signs of agitation and asphyxia. Laboratory Animals 29: 262–268CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danneman, P J, Stein, S and Walshaw, S O 1997 Humane and practical implications of using carbon dioxide mixed with oxygen for anaesthesia or euthanasia of rats. Laboratory Animal Science 47: 376–384Google ScholarPubMed
EU Working Party 1996 Recommendations for euthanasia of experimental animals: part I. Laboratory Animals 30: 292–316Google Scholar
EU Working Party 1997 Recommendations for euthanasia of experimental animals: part 2. Laboratory Animals 30: 1–32Google Scholar
Ewbank, R 1983 Is CO2 euthanasia humane? Nature 305: 268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FELASA (Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations) 1994 Recommendations for the health monitoring of mouse, rat, hamster, guinea pig and rabbit breeding colonies. Laboratory Animals 28: 1–12Google Scholar
Fenwick, D C and Blackshaw, J K 1989 Carbon dioxide as a short-term restraint anaesthetic in rats with sub-clinical respiratory disease. Laboratory Animals 23: 220–228CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flecknell, P A 1995 Laboratory animal anaesthesia. In: Tuffery, A A (ed) Laboratory Animals: an Introduction for Experimenters pp 375–385. John Wiley and Sons: Chichester, UKGoogle Scholar
Flecknell, P A 1996 Laboratory Animal Anaesthesia, Second Edition. Harcourt Brace and Company: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Flecknell, P A, Cruz, I J, Liles, J H and Whelan, G 1996 Induction of anaesthesia with halothane and isoflurane in the rabbit: a comparison of the use of a face-mask or an anaesthetic chamber. Laboratory Animals 30: 67–74CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flecknell, P A and Liles, J H 1996 Halothane anaesthesia in the rabbit: a comparison of the effects of medetomidine, acepromazine and midazolam on breath holding during induction. Journal of Veterinary Anaesthesia 23: 11–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flecknell, P A, Roughan, J V and Hedenqvist, P 1999 Induction of anaesthesia with sevoflurane and isoflurane in the rabbit. Laboratory Animals 33: 41–46CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freed, D L J 1982 CO2 euthanasia. Nature 304: 482CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, C J 1979 Animal Anaesthesia. Laboratory Animals: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Gregory, N G, Mohan-Raj, A B and Audsley, A R S 1990 Effect of CO2 on man. Fleischwirtschaft 70: 1173–1174Google Scholar
Hackbarth, H, Küpper, N and Bohnet, W 2000 Euthanasia of rats with carbon dioxide — animal welfare aspects. Laboratory Animals 34: 91–96CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedenqvist, P, Roughan, J V, Antunes, L, Orr, H and Flecknell, P A 2000 Induction of anaesthesia with desflurane and isoflurane in the rabbit. Laboratory Animals 35: 172–179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hewett, T A, Kovacs, M S, Antwohl, J E and Taylor-Bennett, B 1993 A comparison of euthanasia methods in rats, using carbon dioxide in pre-filled and fixed flow rate filled chambers. Laboratory Animal Science 43: 573–582Google Scholar
Home Office 2002 Statistics of Scientific Procedures on Living Animals — Great Britain 2001, First Edition. Her Majesty's Stationery Office: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Iwarsson, K and Rehbinder, C 1993 A study of different euthanasia techniques in guinea pigs, rats and mice. Animal response and post-mortem findings. Scandinavian Journal of Laboratory Animal Science 4: 191–205Google Scholar
Jones, R M 1990 Desflurane and sevoflurane — inhalation anaesthetics for this decade. British Journal of Anaesthesia 65: 527–536CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohler, I, Meier, R, Busato, A, Neiger-Aeschbacher, G and Schatzmann, U 1999 Is carbon dioxide (CO2) a useful short acting anaesthetic for small laboratory animals? Laboratory Animals 33: 155–161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Komai, M and Bryant, B P 1993 Acetazolamide specifically inhibits lingual trigeminal nerve responses to carbon dioxide. Brain Research 612: 122–129CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambooij, E, Gerritzen, M A, Engel, B, Hillebrand, S J W, Lankhaar, J and Pieterse, C 1999 Behavioural responses during exposure of broiler chickens to different gas mixtures. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 62: 255–265CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leach, M C, Bowell, V A, Allan, T F and Morton, D B 2002a Aversion to gaseous euthanasia agents in rats and mice. Comparative Medicine 52: 249–257Google ScholarPubMed
Leach, M C, Bowell, V A, Allan, T F and Morton, D B 2002b The aversion to various concentrations of different inhalational general anaesthetics in rats and mice. The Veterinary Record 150: 808–815CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucke, J N 1979 Euthanasia in small animals. The Veterinary Record 104: 316–318CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ludders, J W, Schmidt, R H, Dein, F J and Klein, P N 1999 Drowning is not euthanasia. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27: 666–670Google Scholar
MacArthur, J A 1978 Carbon dioxide euthanasia of small animals (including cats). In: Humane Killing of Animals. Universities Federation for Animal Welfare: Wheathampstead, Herts, UKGoogle Scholar
Merriam-Webster 2001 Merriam-Webstefs Collegiate Dictionary, lOth Edition. Merriam-Webster: Springfield, USAGoogle Scholar
Montgomery, D C and Peck, E A 1992 Introduction to Linear Regression Analysis. John Wiley and Sons: Chichester, UKGoogle Scholar
Mouton, W G, Naef, M, Bessell, J R, Otten, K T, Wagner, H E and Maddern, G J 2001 A randomized controlled trial to determine the effect of humidified carbon dioxide (CO2) insufflation on postoperative pain following thoracoscopic procedures. Surgical Endoscopy-Ultrasound and Interventional Techniques 15: 579–581CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olfert, E D, Gross, B M and McWilliam, A A 1993 Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, Volume I. Canadian Council on Animal Care: Ontario, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Paton, W 1983 Is CO2 euthanasia humane? Nature 305: 268CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peppel, P and Anton, F 1993 Responses of rat medullary dorsal horn neurons following intranasal noxious chemical stimulation: effects of the stimulus intensity, duration, and interstimulus interval. Journal of Neurophysiology 70: 2260–2275CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raj, A B M 1999 Behaviour of pigs exposed to mixtures of gases and the time required to stun and kill them: welfare implications. The Veterinary Record 144: 165–168CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raj, A B M and Gregory, N G 1994 An evaluation of humane gas stunning methods for turkeys. The Veterinary Record 135: 222–223CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raj, A B M and Gregory, N G 1995 Welfare implications of the gas stunning of pigs: determination of aversion to the initial inhalation of carbon dioxide or argon. Animal Welfare 4: 273–280Google Scholar
Raj, A B M and Whittington, P E 2003 Euthanasia of day-old chicks with carbon dioxide and argon. The Veterinary Record 136: 292–294CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, W and Harrap, S B 1997 Behavioural and cardiovascular responses of rats to euthanasia using carbon dioxide. Laboratory Animals 31: 337–346CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thurauf, N, Friedel, I and Hummel, C 1991 The mucosal potential elicited by noxious chemical stimuli with CO2 in rats: is it a peripheral nociceptive event? Neuroscience Letters 128: 297–300CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Luijtelaar, G and Coenen, A 1999 Inhalational euthanasia in broiler chickens. World Poultry 15: 40–43Google Scholar
Wadham, J J B 1997 Recognition and reduction of adverse effects in research on rodents. PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham, UK.Google Scholar