Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-05T08:32:42.183Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Examination of enrichment using space and food for African elephants (Loxodonta africana) at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 January 2023

CE Hacker ,
LJ Miller  and
BA Schulte
CE Hacker*
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, 1906 College Heights Blvd #11080, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA Zoological Society of San Diego, Institute for Conservation Research, 15600 San Pasqual Valley Road, Escondido, CA 92027, USA
LJ Miller
Affiliation:
Zoological Society of San Diego, Institute for Conservation Research, 15600 San Pasqual Valley Road, Escondido, CA 92027, USA Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield Zoo, 3300 Golf Road, Brookfield, IL 60513, USA
BA Schulte
Affiliation:
Department of Biology, Western Kentucky University, 1906 College Heights Blvd #11080, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA
*
* Contact for correspondence and requests for reprints: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Concern for elephant welfare in zoological facilities has prompted a number of exhibit and management modifications, including those involving enrichment. Knowledge of how these changes impact indicators of welfare, such as elephant movement and behaviour, is crucial for continued improvement of elephant husbandry and care. The present study used observations and GPS-collected data to determine the effects of available space and food presentation on the walking distance and behaviour of thirteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana), which had a dominance structure ascertained by animal care staff at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park (SDZSP). This facility has two exhibits of approximately equal size. Three treatments were created to assess the effects of food and space enrichment: (i) access to half of the exhibit with food (Half); (ii) access to the entire exhibit with food in one yard (Both/Half); and (iii) access to the entire exhibit with food in both yards (Both). For Half and Both/Half, food was presented in each yard for an equal number of trials. Significant differences across treatments were revealed for average total walking distances but this was not found between any two given treatments. Walking distance varied among elephants belonging to different dominance groups, with middle-ranked elephants taking the most advantage of a larger available space. Behaviour did not differ across treatments, but the change in behavioural diversity from one treatment to another was significant for subordinate elephants. The information obtained from this study has direct implications for the management of the SDZSP elephants and for other facilities looking to increase walking distance or subordinate behavioural diversity.

Keywords

African elephantanimal behaviouranimal welfareenrichmentGPS technologyzoo studies
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 27 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 55 - 65
Copyright
© 2018 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Altman, JD 1998 Animal activity and visitor learning at the zoo. Anthrozoös 11: 12–21. https://doi.org/10.2752/089279398787000869CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, J, Mecklenborg, M and Bercovitch, FB 2004 Milk intake and development in a newborn captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 24: 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20048CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Archie, EA, Moss, CJ and Alberts, SC 2006 The ties that bind: genetic relatedness predicts and fission and fusion of social groups in wild African elephants. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B273: 513-522. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3361CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2012 AZA standards for elephant management and care. https://www.aza.org/uploadedFiles/Conservation/Commitments_and_Impact s/Elephant_Conservation/ElephantStandards.pdfGoogle Scholar
Bates, LA, Poole, JK and Byrne, RW 2008 Elephant cognition. Current Biology 18: 544–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.04.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardsworth, A and Bryman, A 2001 The wild animal in late modernity: the case of the Disneyization of zoos. Tourism Studies 1: 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/146879760100100105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Björk, K 2011 The effect of extra feed supply on stereotypic behav-iour in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus). Bachelor's thesis, Linköping University, Linköping, SwedenGoogle Scholar
Brown, JL, Paris, S, Prado-Oviedo, NA, Meehan, CL, Hogan, JN, Morfeld, KA and Carlstead, K 2016 Reproductive health assessment of female elephants in North America zoos and asso-ciation of husbandry practices with reproductive dysfunction in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). PLoS One 11: e0145673. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145673CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bryant, MJ and Ewbank, R 1972 Some effects of stocking rate and group size upon agonistic behaviour in groups of growing pigs. The British Veterinary Journal 128: 64–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0007-1935(17)37133-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlstead, KC and Shepherdson, D 1994 Effects of environ-mental enrichment on reproduction. Zoo Biology 13: 447–458. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.1430130507CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cipreste, CF, de Azevedo, CS and Young, RJ 2010 How to develop a zoo-based environmental enrichment program: incor-porating environmental enrichment into exhibits. In: Kleiman, D, Thompson, K and Baer, C (eds) Wild Mammals in Captivity pp 171–180. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, USAGoogle Scholar
Clark, FE and Melfi, VA 2011 Environmental enrichment for a mixed-species nocturnal mammal exhibit. Zoo Biology 29: 1–17Google Scholar
Clubb, R and Mason, G 2003 A Review of the Welfare of Zoo Elephants in Europe. University of Oxford: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Colbert, D 2010 Enrichment. Association of Zoos and Aquariums. www.aza.org/enrichment/Google Scholar
Dulong, C, Graham, S, Huffman, B, Lympany, B, Tabone, G and Ward, J 2005 Suggested guidelines for captive elephant enrichment. AAZK. https://www.aazk.org/wp-content/uploads/Suggested-Guidelines-for-Captive-Elephant-Enrichment.pdfGoogle Scholar
Freeman, EW, Weiss, W and Brown, JL 2004 Examination of the interrelationships of behaviour, dominance status, and ovarian activi-ty in captive Asian and African elephants. Zoo Biology 23: 431–448CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greco, BJ, Brown, TK, Andrews, JRM, Swaisgood, RR and Caine, NG 2013 Social learning in captive African elephants. Animal Cognition 16: 459–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-012-0586-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greco, BJ, Meehan, CL, Hogan, JN, Leighty, KA, Mellen, J, Mason, GJ and Mench, JA 2016a The days and nights of zoo elephants: Using epidemiology to better understand stereotypic behaviour of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian ele-phants (Elephas maximus) in North American zoos. PLoS One 11: e0144276. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0144276CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greco, BJ, Meehan, CL, Miller, LJ, Shepherdson, DJ, Morfeld, KA, Andrews, J, Baker, AM, Carlstead, K and Mench, JA 2016b Elephant management in North American zoos: environ-mental enrichment, feeding, exercise, and training. PLoS One 11: e0152490. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152490CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hacker, CE, Horback, KM and Miller, LJ 2015 GPS technology as a proxy tool for determining relationships in social animals: An example with African elephants. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 163:175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.12.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hambrecht, S and Reichler, S 2013 Group dynamics of young Asian elephant bulls (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758) in Heidelberg Zoo – integration of a newcomer in an established herd. Der Zoologische Garten 82: 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zoolgart.2014.01.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holdgate, MR, Meehan, CL, Hogan, JN, Miller, LJ, Rushen, J, de Passillé, AM, Soltis, J, Andrews, J and Shepherdson, DJ 2016a Recumbence behaviour in zoo elephants: determination of patterns and frequency of recumbent rest and associated environ-mental and social factors. PLoS One 11: e0153301. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153301CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holdgate, MR, Meehan, CL, Hogan, JN, Miller, LJ, Soltis, J, Andrews, J and Shepherdson, DJ 2016b Walking behaviour of zoo elephants: associations between GPS-measured daily walking distances and environmental factors, social factors, and welfare indicators. PLoS One 11: 20153301. https://doi.org/10.1371/jour-nal.pone.0150331CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horback, K, Miller, L, Andrew, J, Kuczaj, S and Anderson, M 2012 The effects of GPS collars on African elephant (Loxodonta africana) behaviour at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 142: 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2012.09.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hosey, G 2008 A preliminary model of human-animal relation-ships in the zoo. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 109: 105–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.04.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laule, G 2003 Positive reinforcement training and environmental enrichment: enhancing animal well-being. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 223: 969–973. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2003.223.969CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leighty, K, Soltis, J and Savage, A 2010 GPS assessment of the use of exhibit space and resources by African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 29: 220–220Google ScholarPubMed
Loizi, H, Goodwin, TE, Rasmussen, LEL, Whitehouse, AM and Schulte, BA 2009 Sexual dimorphism in the performance of chemosensoy investigatory behaviours by African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Behaviour 146: 373–392. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853909X410964CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margulis, SW, Hoyos, C and Anderson, M 2003 Effect of felid activity on zoo visitor interest. Zoo Biology 22: 587–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.10115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, P and Bateson, P 2007 Measuring Behaviour: An Introductory Guide, Third Edition. Cambridge University Press: New York, USA. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511810893CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, G, Clubb, R, Latham, N and Vickery, S 2007 Why and how should we use environmental enrichment to tackle stereo-typic behaviour? Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102: 162–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.041CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mason, GJ 1991 Stereotypies: a critical review. Animal Behaviour.41: 1015-1037. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80640-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meehan, CL, Mench, JA, Carlstead, K and Hogan, JN 2016 Determining connections between the daily lives of zoo elephants and their welfare: an epidemiological approach. PLoS One 11: e0158124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158124CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mellen, JD, Stevens, VJ and Markowitz, H 1981 Environmental enrichment for servals, Indian elephants and Canadian otters at Washington Park Zoo, Portland. International Zoo Yearbook 21:196–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.1981.tb01981.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merz, G 1986 Movement patterns and group size of the African forest elephant Loxodonta africana cyclotis in the Tai National Park, Ivory Coast. African Journal of Ecology 24: 133–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.1986.tb00353.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, L 2012 Visitor reaction to pacing behaviour: influence on the perception of animal care and interest in supporting zoologi-cal institutions. Zoo Biology 31: 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20411CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, L, Andrews, J and Anderson, M 2011 Validating meth-ods to determining walking rates of elephants within a zoological institution. Animal Welfare 22: 577–582.Google Scholar
Miller, L, Chase, MJ and Hacker, CE 2016 A comparison of walking rates between wild and zoo African elephants. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 19: 271–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2015.1137755CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, M, Hogan, JN and Meehan, CL 2016 Housing and demographic risk factors impacting foot and musculoskeletal health in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian ele-phants (Elephas maximus) in North American zoos. PLoS One 11: e0155223. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155223CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morfeld, KA, Meehan, CL, Hogan, JN and Brown, JL 2016 Assessment of body condition in African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in North American zoos and management practices associated with high body condition scores. PLoS One 11: 20155146. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155146CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, CM, Sandeep, VM and Pusey, AE 2007 Dominance rank influences female space use in wild chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes: towards an ideal despotic distribution. Animal Behaviour 74: 1795–1804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbe-hav.2007.03.024CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, D 2004 Elephant Husbandry Resource Guide. Allen Press: Kansas, USAGoogle Scholar
Payne, K 2003 Sources of social complexity in three elephant species. In: de Waal, FBM and Tyack, PC (eds) Animal Social Complexity: Intelligence, Culture and Individualized Societies pp 57–85. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, USA. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674419131.c5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posta, B, Huber, R and Moore, DE 2013 The effects of housing on zoo elephant behaviour: a quantitative case study of diurnal and sea-son variation. International Journal of Comparative Psychology 26: 37–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prado-Oviedo, NA, Bonaparte-Saller, MK, Malloy, EJ, Meehan, CL, Mench, JA, Carlstead, K and Brown, JL 2016 Evaluation of demographics and social life events of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in North American zoos. PLoS One 11: e0154750. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154750CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rees, PS 2009 Activity budgets and the relationship between feeding and stereotypic behaviours in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a zoo. Zoo Biology 28: 79–97. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20200CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulte, B 2000 Social structure and helping behaviour in captive elephants. Zoo Biology 5: 447–459. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:5<447::AID-ZOO12>3.0.CO;2-#3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shannon, CE and Weaver, W 1949 The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press: Champaign, USAGoogle Scholar
Shepherdson, DJ 2010 Principles of and research on environ-mental enrichment for mammals. In: Kleiman, D, Thompson, K and Baer, C (eds) Wild Mammals in Captivity pp 62–67. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, USAGoogle Scholar
Shepherdson, DJ, Carlstead, K, Mellen, JD and Seidensticker, J 1993 The influence of food presentation of the behaviour of small cats in confined environments. Zoo Biology 12:203–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.1430120206CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoinski, TS, Daniel, E and Maple, TL 2000 A preliminary study of the behavioural effects of feeding enrichment on African elephants. Zoo Biology 6: 485–493. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2361(2000)19:6<485::AID-ZOO1>3.0.CO;2-53.0.CO;2-5>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokke, S and Du Toit, JT 2002 Sexual segregation in habitat use by elephants in Chobe National Park, Botswana. African Journal of Ecology 40: 360–371. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2028.2002.00395.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theiss, A, Yen, DC and Ku, C 2005 Global Positioning Systems: an analysis of applications, current development, and future imple-mentations. Computer Standards & Interfaces 27: 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csi.2004.06.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veasey, JS 2006 Concepts in the care and welfare of captive ele-phants. International Zoo Yearbook 40: 63–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2006.00063.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whyte, IJ 1996 Studying elephant movements. In: Kangwana, K (ed) Studying Elephants pp 75–89. African Wildlife Foundation: Nairobi, KenyaGoogle Scholar
Wittemyer, G and Getz, WM 2007 Hierarchical dominance structure and spatial organization in African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Animal Behaviour 73: 671–681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittemyer, G, Getz, WM, Vollrath, F and Douglas-Hamilton, I 2007 Social dominance, seasonal movements, and spatial segregation in African elephants: a contribution to conser-vation behaviour. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology 61: 1919–1931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-007-0432-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Hacker et al. supplementary material
Download undefined(File)
File 185.2 KB