Introduction
Rationale
Gastrointestinal disorders are one of the most prevalent diseases of preweaned dairy calves: approximately 21% of dairy calves in US operations are affected and 76% of them receive antimicrobial (AM) treatment (NAHMS-USDA, 2018; Urie et al., Reference Urie, Lombard, Shivley, Kopral, Adams, Earleywine, Olson and Garry2018). Similarly, diarrhea is the primary reason for AM treatment in beef calf ranches (Waldner et al., Reference Waldner, Jelinski and McIntyre-Zimmer2013). The primary goal of AM therapy in diarrheic calves is to prevent bacteremia and decrease the number of coliform bacteria in the small intestine (Smith, Reference Smith2015). However, experts recommended that AM treatments should be limited to scouring calves showing clinical signs of systemic illness (Constable et al., Reference Constable, Pyörälä, Smith, Guardabassi, Jensen and Kruse2008).
In the USA, there is a limited number of AMs with a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases in calves (chlortetracycline, ampicillin, amoxicillin, oxytetracycline, tetracycline, and sulfamethazine; FARAD, 2020). Most of the FDA-approved AM drugs belong to the penicillin or tetracycline class, categorized as critically and highly important AMs for human medicine, respectively (WHO, 2019). Although AMs are widely used for prophylaxis, metaphylaxis, and treatment of infectious diseases in calves (Urie et al., Reference Urie, Lombard, Shivley, Kopral, Adams, Earleywine, Olson and Garry2018), validated evidence on the efficacy of AMs for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders in calves is lacking (Smith, Reference Smith2015).
AM use represents a threat to worldwide public health, as it is one of the main drivers of the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR; Van Boeckel et al., Reference Van Boeckel, Brower, Gilbert, Grenfell, Levin, Robinson, Teillant and Laxminarayan2015; WHO, 2015; FDA CVM, 2018). Therefore, the judicious use of medically important AM drugs in food-producing animals has been proposed as a key strategy to preserve the effectiveness of currently available AM drugs (WHO, 2015; FDA CVM, 2018; OIE, 2018). Accurate and unbiased evidence on the therapeutic efficacy of AMs to treat infectious diseases is necessary to successfully design evidence-based AM stewardship programs (Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Logue, Novy, O'Connor, Reist and Winder2019a).
The efficacy of AM treatments should be assessed in multi-arm randomized controlled trials (RCTs), but these are rarely available in the scientific literature. So, research synthesis methods of two-armed RCTs can be used to evaluate AM efficacy (O'Connor et al., Reference O'Connor, Totton and Shane2019). Systematic reviews (SRs) and meta-analyses (MA) are powerful tools that can provide scientifically valid information on the scope and conclusions of the existing literature on AM treatments for calf diarrhea. These synthesis methods are needed to design evidence-based decision-making guidelines that can be incorporated in AM stewardship programs for livestock.
Objectives
The first objective of this study was to conduct an SR to appraise the scientific literature on the efficacy and comparative efficacy of AM treatments for diarrhea in calves under 6 months of age. The second objective was to conduct an MA to evaluate the efficacy of AM drugs compared to the absence of treatment, alternative non-AM treatments, or other AM drugs used to treat diarrhea in calves under 6 months of age.
Methods
Protocol and registration
An a priori review protocol was developed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols (PRISMA-P; Moher et al., Reference Moher, Shamseer, Clarke, Ghersi, Liberati, Petticrew, Shekelle and Stewart2015) and was archived in the University of California eScholarship online repository (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0nw528h4). In addition, the protocol was published on the Systematic Reviews for Animals and Food (SYREAF) website (http://www.syreaf.org/protocol). Protocol amendments are described below and include screening questions, risk of bias assessment, and summary measures.
Eligibility criteria
Eligibility criteria, search strategy, and screening questions were designed based on the PICOS question format (Population–Intervention–Comparison–Outcome–Study type; EFSA, 2010; O'Connor et al., Reference O'Connor, Anderson, Goodell and Sargeant2014a). The population of interest was dairy and beef calves under 6 months of age at the time of study enrollment. The intervention of interest was the administration of oral or injectable AMs (antimicrobials; antibiotics and antiprotozoal drugs) after observing clinical signs of diarrhea or after exposing animals to a diarrhea-causing pathogen (challenge studies). Comparisons of interest were the absence of treatment (e.g. placebo, no-treatment), alternative non-AM treatments (e.g. herb extracts, probiotics, lactoferrin, oral rehydration solutions), or other AM treatments (e.g., AM used as positive control). Outcomes of interest were limited to mortality, health [e.g. fecal consistency score (FCS), blood in feces, dehydration (DH), appetite, demeanor, or fever], and performance [e.g. average daily gain (ADG) and feed efficiency]. Only studies assessing the efficacy of AMs to treat animals diagnosed with diarrhea based on clinical signs were relevant. Studies exclusively focusing on pathogen fecal shedding were excluded. The SR was limited to primary research including non-, quasi-, and RCTs with at least one AM and one comparator group. Only peer-reviewed publications were retrieved, and ‘gray literature’ (literature not formally published, such as theses and dissertations, conference proceedings, trade articles, research reports, and policy documents) was not included (Dickersin et al., Reference Dickersin, Scherer and Lefebvre1994). Eligible studies had to be written in English and publicly available, although not necessarily open access. The searching period was based on database coverage, and no limit on publication date was applied.
Search strategy and information sources
The search strategy was designed by an experienced health and veterinary science academic librarian (E. D. F.), with input and reference citation lists from content experts (C. B. C. and N. S. R.). Relevant articles were identified by the principal investigator (C. B. C.) and keywords and indexing terms were mined through Medline (via PubMed, 1966–2020) and CAB Abstracts (via CAB Direct, 1972–2020). After developing the search strategies in CAB Abstracts and PubMed, the search was translated by E. D. F. to Scopus (via Scopus, 1970–2020) and Biosis (via Web of Science, 1926–2020). Keywords from relevant references were gathered and compared to keywords utilized in the previous search. Yale MeSH Analyzer (http://mesh.med.yale.edu/) was also utilized to compare common Medical Subject Headings across articles. Content experts identified keywords or indexing terms based on key pathogens and relevant AMs. During screening, C. B. C. performed a hand-search of relevant manuscripts and reviews using the snowball method and citation searching (https://libguides.library.uu.nl/PiL). The literature search was conducted from 1st to 2nd July 2019, and a search update was made on 29th June 2020. All studies were exported to Mendeley (Mendeley Ltd., Elsevier), where duplicate citations were deleted. The search strategy used for all databases is described in Supplementary material (SM) 1.
Selection process
Covidence SR management software (Veritas Health Innovation, Melbourne, Australia) was used to manage the screening of the title and abstract of all citations retrieved in the search. Three reviewers with veterinary and animal science backgrounds were trained on PICOS format questions prior to screening the title (C. B. C., L. L. S., and M. B. A.), abstract (C. B. C. and L. L. S.), and full text (C. B. C. and L. L. S.). The screening questions included in the protocol were beta-tested with 40 citations, and afterward modified for clarity if needed. For title and abstract screening questions, the possible answers were ‘no', ‘maybe/unclear', and ‘yes'. References moved to the next stage if all title and abstract screening questions were answered ‘yes' or ‘maybe/unclear'. For full-text screening questions, the possible answers were ‘no' and ‘yes'. References were included in the SR if all the full-text screening questions were answered ‘yes'. References were excluded if all reviewers responded ‘no’ to one or more questions. Disagreements on manuscript inclusion were resolved by consensus and if necessary, an additional researcher (N. S. R.) was consulted. The final screening questions utilized were:
Title screening
(1) Does the title indicate cattle as the subject of study?
(2) Does the title describe the use of an AM treatment?
Abstract screening
(1) Does the abstract describe a controlled trial?
(2) Does the abstract describe a study of diarrhea in calves?
(3) Does the abstract describe one or more intervention groups of an AM treatment regimen?
(4) Does the abstract report at least one outcome related to clinical cure or performance?
Full-text screening
In this final screening level, the previous six questions and the following questions were used:
(1) Is the enrollment age of subject cattle ≤6 months?
(2) Are AM given after the diagnosis of diarrhea or the onset of clinical signs?
(3) Does the study evaluate clinical outcomes of AM treatment?
Studies evaluating the efficacy of AM use in control (metaphylaxis) and prevention (prophylaxis) of disease, as defined by the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA, 2020), were excluded. Studies where AM treatments were given as growth promoters, and studies with unclear or no reporting primary data were not considered. The reasons for manuscript exclusion were recorded at this level.
Data collection process
The data extraction process was completed following the guidelines by Sargeant and O'Connor (Reference Sargeant and O'Connor2014). Two reviewers (C. B. C. and L. L. S.) independently used pre-designed spreadsheets to collect data (Excel 2010, Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA). Data extraction disagreements were resolved by discussion until a consensus was reached; if needed, a third reviewer (N. S. R.) was consulted. Study-level data included population, interventions, comparators, and outcomes for each independent study. Population data included: breed, sex, enrollment age, housing, inclusion criteria, and sample size. Intervention and comparator-level data were extracted and included: randomization process, group size, treatment features (active ingredient, dose, route, length, and frequency), complementary treatments (e.g. fluid therapy and anti-inflammatory drugs), and features of personnel who delivered treatments (e.g. training or blindness). Additionally, pathogens (e.g. genus and species) and infection type (e.g. challenge study or natural infection) were extracted. Outcome data extracted included: type, evaluation features (e.g. assessment methods, evaluation period, and frequency of measurements), and features of personnel who assessed clinical outcomes (e.g. training or blindness). Treatment failure and success definitions, when these were available, were extracted – without modifications – from the original manuscripts. The summary effects of the outcomes were extracted from either adjusted (if available) or unadjusted data as well as their corresponding measures of variability. Moreover, the significance and variability of the reported outcome were recorded when available [e.g. standard deviation, standard error, odds ratio, relative risk, confidence intervals (CIs), and P-value].
Risk of bias assessment
The risk of bias at the outcome level was independently assessed by three reviewers (C. B. C., R. B. L., and L. L. S.) using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for Randomized Trials (Sterne et al., Reference Sterne, Savović, Page, Elbers, Blencowe, Boutron, Cates, Cheng, Corbett, Eldridge, Emberson, Hernán, Hopewell, Hróbjartsson, Junqueira, Jüni, Kirkham, Lasserson, Li, McAleenan, Reeves, Shepperd, Shrier, Stewart, Tilling, White, Whiting and Higgins2019). Five commonly used domains (bias arising from the randomization process, bias due to deviations from intended interventions, bias due to missing outcome data, bias in the measurement of the outcome, and bias in the selection of reported results) and a novel domain (bias related to disease definition; SM 2) were assessed. As described below, signaling questions were modified following the approach described by Sargeant et al. (Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Logue, Novy, O'Connor, Reist and Winder2019a, Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Hu, Moody, O'Connor, O'Sullivan, Reist, Wang, Wilhelm and Winder2019b) in prior livestock synthesis studies. In the randomization process domain, the question ‘was the allocation sequence random?’ was modified to ‘was the study randomized?’. The answers to this question were modified to ‘probably no’ if the study did not report data on sequence generation, ‘probably yes’ if the study reported random sequence allocation but not the randomization process, and ‘yes’ when the study reported a random component in the sequence generation process (e.g. computer random number generator). Also, the allocation sequence concealment question was not included as it is unlikely that a farmworker, producer, or researcher would have a treatment preference for any given calf. In the domain regarding deviations from intended interventions, the question ‘were participants aware of their assigned intervention during the trial?’ was always answered as ‘no’, as the ‘participants’ in all studies were calves. This domain also inquires about the blinding of study personnel; for the purposes of this SR, the animal caregivers and/or people responsible for delivering treatment were the relevant study personnel. The risk of bias tool was tested with three studies to ensure consistency across reviewers (Sargeant and O'Connor, Reference Sargeant and O'Connor2014). Reviewers were trained on the risk of bias tool, and disagreements between reviewers were resolved by consensus to adjudicate the final judgment. The outcome chosen for bias assessment was the severity of FCS or diarrhea, but if not reported, diarrhea duration was used instead.
Synthesis of results
As described in the study protocol, the goal of this SR was to conduct an MA to evaluate the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea. Our SR identified few eligible manuscripts; there was wide variability in interventions and outcomes across studies. Scarcity of the scientific literature and heterogeneity among studies made it unfeasible to address the review question. Thus, no quantitative synthesis could be performed, and heterogeneity was not formally assessed. Following the PRISMA guidelines, study results were summarized in forest plots for visualization purposes.
Summary measures
The effect size [risk ratio (RR) or mean difference] was calculated for the most common outcomes reported at the group level: diarrhea (or fecal score) severity and calf mortality. For categorical data, mean difference and 95% CIs were calculated using the OpenEpi online tool (https://www.openepi.com/Mean/t_testMean.htm); pooled standard error reported in each original manuscript was used in these calculations. For binary data, the RR and 95% CI were calculated using MedCalc Statistical Software version 20.0.5 (MedCalc Software, Ostend, Belgium). For RR calculation, calves that received the intervention were considered exposed, and calves that were given the comparator were considered unexposed. For FCS or diarrhea, RR was calculated using mild to severe diarrhea cases in exposed and unexposed calves. Post-hoc analysis was not necessary when manuscripts reported the effect size as RR.
Results
Study characteristics
Results below correspond to SR results only, as an MA could not be conducted due to scarcity of studies and differences in interventions and outcomes among selected studies. The search retrieved 2899 publications from which 102 full-text manuscripts were assessed for eligibility (Fig. 1). In total, 11 manuscripts containing 11 unique studies met all the inclusion criteria and were included in the SR. The main characteristics of the 11 selected studies are described in Table 1. Four studies reported the funding source [private (Lofstedt et al., Reference Lofstedt, Miller, Duizer and Daley1996; Fecteau et al., Reference Fecteau, House, Kotarski, Tankersley, Ontiveros, Alcantar and Smith2003), public (Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010), or mixed (Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009)] whereas seven did not. No study provided a sample-size calculation, and randomization was unclear in one study (Bywater, Reference Bywater1977).
Fig. 1. Flow diagram illustrating the selection of eligible studies for the systematic review of the efficacy of antimicrobials in the treatment of calf diarrhea (Adapted from the PRISMA guidelines). a102 full-text manuscripts which contained 126 independent studies.
Table 1. Characteristics of eligible trials investigating the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea
NR, not reported.
a Age at enrollment.
Intervention and comparator features
Intervention (treatment) and comparator (control) groups are described in Table 2. No study provided information about the training of personnel administering treatments, and only two studies reported blinding of personnel (Sheldon, Reference Sheldon1977; Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009). Due to irrelevant interventions, one or more groups (arms) were not considered: (1) unchallenged calves treated or non-treated (Fecteau et al., Reference Fecteau, House, Kotarski, Tankersley, Ontiveros, Alcantar and Smith2003; Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009; Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010); (2) AMs in combination with other treatments (Bywater, Reference Bywater1977; Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010); and (3) AMs given as prophylactic intervention (Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009).
Table 2. Intervention and comparator groups from studies included in the SR of the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea
PO, oral; IM, intramuscular; SC, subcutaneous; q24h: every 24 h; q12h: every 12 h; q48h: every 48 h.
a Doses are reported as mg kg−1 (milligrams per kilogram of body weight) or as mg or ml TD (total dose in milligrams or milliliters).
b Ranges in the treatment length are related to time to cure.
c Frequencies are indicative of the frequency reported by the original manuscript; these could briefly differ from the original value.
Outcomes and definitions
Clinical outcomes
The most common clinical outcomes evaluated (FCS, temperature, DH, appetite, and attitude) are described in Table 3. Other clinical variables evaluated included eye position (Lofstedt et al., Reference Lofstedt, Miller, Duizer and Daley1996) and blood in feces, tenesmus, and sucking reflex (Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002). In three studies, outcome assessors were reported to be blinded and identified as veterinarians (Sunderland et al., Reference Sunderland, Sarasola, Rowan, Giles and Smith2003), vet students (Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009), or researchers (White et al., Reference White, Johnson and Cracknell1998); but eight studies did not provide this information.
Table 3. Scoring systems for clinical outcomes evaluated by studies included in the SR of the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea
NR, outcome with assessment methods not reported.
a Relative to treatment onset; evaluation days are indicative of the period reported by the original manuscript, so these could differ from the original value.
b Not clearly described.
c Reference provided for the scoring system method.
Performance outcomes
One study assessed ADG (Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009). Bodyweight gain was evaluated in 6 studies (Bywater, Reference Bywater1977; Grimshaw et al., Reference Grimshaw, Colman and Petrie1987; White et al., Reference White, Johnson and Cracknell1998; Fecteau et al., Reference Fecteau, House, Kotarski, Tankersley, Ontiveros, Alcantar and Smith2003; Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009; Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010), however, one study did not report results (Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009). Only one manuscript reported the tool or method used to weigh calves (digital scale; Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009).
Health definitions
Five studies reported a definition of diarrhea (Bywater, Reference Bywater1977; Grimshaw et al., Reference Grimshaw, Colman and Petrie1987; Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002; Sunderland et al., Reference Sunderland, Sarasola, Rowan, Giles and Smith2003; Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009); it was exclusively based on FCS but its description and score-point system highly varied across studies. Five studies used the term ‘diarrhea’ but provided no definition (Lofstedt et al., Reference Lofstedt, Miller, Duizer and Daley1996; White et al., Reference White, Johnson and Cracknell1998; Fecteau et al., Reference Fecteau, House, Kotarski, Tankersley, Ontiveros, Alcantar and Smith2003; Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009; Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010), and one study defined health events based on abnormal FCS without using the term ‘diarrhea’ (Sheldon, Reference Sheldon1997). Two studies reported treatment failure and success (Sheldon, Reference Sheldon1997; Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002), but the term ‘failure’ was not defined in Sheldon (Reference Sheldon1997).
Results of specific outcomes
Mortality
Calf mortality was reported in six studies; the calculated RR for each study was represented as a forest plot (Fig. 2). The RR for three of the comparisons (Amoxicillin vs No treatment; Sulbactam: Ampicillin vs Placebo; Ampicillin vs. Placebo) favored intervention relative to control (the CI did not include 1).
Fig. 2. Forest plot to illustrate the results about mortality from the studies included in the systematic review of the efficacy of antimicrobials in the treatment of calf diarrhea. P = Placebo; BAQ:SUL = Baquiloprim:Sulphamidine; CI = Confidence intervals.
Severity of diarrhea
Seven studies reported the severity of diarrhea (Lofstedt et al., Reference Lofstedt, Miller, Duizer and Daley1996; Sheldon, Reference Sheldon1997; White et al., Reference White, Johnson and Cracknell1998; Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002; Sunderland et al., Reference Sunderland, Sarasola, Rowan, Giles and Smith2003; Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009; Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010). However, one study (Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002) was not considered due to incomplete reporting. Diarrhea severity was reported as RR in one manuscript (Olivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009) and calculated in five manuscripts [mean difference (n = 2); RR (n = 3); Fig. 3]. No comparison favored intervention relative to the comparator.
Fig. 3. Forest plot to illustrate the effects of AMs on the severity of FCS or diarrhea from the studies included in the SR of the efficacy of AMs to treat calf diarrhea. P, placebo; BAQ:SUL, baquiloprim:sulfadimidine; CI, confidence intervals.
Additional results
A summary of all the statistically significant treatment effects reported in each of the 11 studies is provided in SM 3. Three studies reported assessment of adverse effects after the intervention; two studies found an absence of adverse effects (Lofstedt et al., Reference Lofstedt, Miller, Duizer and Daley1996; Sunderland et al., Reference Sunderland, Sarasola, Rowan, Giles and Smith2003); and one study observed an increase in diarrhea severity after AM treatment (Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009). One study informed of relapse in clinical signs after completing the AM and positive control interventions (Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002).
Risk of bias assessment
The risk of bias at the outcome level was based on the severity of diarrhea (or FCS; Lofstedt et al., Reference Lofstedt, Miller, Duizer and Daley1996; Sheldon, Reference Sheldon1997; White et al., Reference White, Johnson and Cracknell1998; Grandemange et al., Reference Grandemange, Mathevet, Charrier and Davot2002; Sunderland et al., Reference Sunderland, Sarasola, Rowan, Giles and Smith2003; Ollivett et al., Reference Ollivett, Nydam, Bowman, Zambriski, Bellosa, Linden and Divers2009; Silva et al., Reference Silva, Silva and Fagliari2010) or diarrhea duration (Bywater, Reference Bywater1977; Grimshaw et al., Reference Grimshaw, Colman and Petrie1987; Fecteau et al., Reference Fecteau, House, Kotarski, Tankersley, Ontiveros, Alcantar and Smith2003; Schnyder et al., Reference Schnyder, Kohler, Hemphill and Deplazes2009). Results of the risk of bias assessment for each domain are shown at the study level (Fig. 4) and as the proportion across all included studies (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgments about each risk of bias domain for each of the 11 studies included in the SR on the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea.
Fig. 5. Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgments about each risk of bias domain presented as percentage across all included studies (n = 11) in the SR of the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea.
Discussion
Dairy and beef calves are often affected with gastrointestinal disorders and treated with AMs (Waldner et al., Reference Waldner, Jelinski and McIntyre-Zimmer2013; NAHMS-USDA, 2018); however, it is unclear if AMs are effective for the treatment of calf gastrointestinal disorders (Smith, Reference Smith2015). The present work aimed to support the development of calf AM use guidelines by appraising the scientific literature on the efficacy and comparative efficacy of different AM treatments for diarrhea in calves under 6 months of age. Although diarrhea in calves is most common during the first 2 months of life (Preweaning period), we chose an inclusive age criterion because weaning time and age at diarrhea events may vary with management (e.g. production system, breed, and country). Our SR identified 11 relevant studies; nevertheless, the limited number of studies and the differences in interventions (AM class and type of pathogenic agent) prevented us from pursuing a MA evaluation (Valentine et al., Reference Valentine, Pigott and Rothstein2010). Overall, the eligible studies indicated that diarrhea severity (n = 4, challenge) and mortality (n = 3, challenge; n = 3, natural infection) were numerically inferior after AM intervention; but only three of the aforementioned studies showed significant statistical differences for diarrhea severity (n = 1) and mortality [challenge (n = 1) and natural infection (n = 1)].
Prior SRs evaluating the efficacy of AMs in livestock were also unable to complete a MA due to the heterogeneity of the interventions across primary studies (O'Connor et al., Reference O'Connor, Wellman, Evans and Roth2006; Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Logue, Novy, O'Connor, Reist and Winder2019a; Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Hu, Moody, O'Connor, O'Sullivan, Reist, Wang, Wilhelm and Winder2019b). Even though very few studies were identified in our SR, it is plausible that additional valid research data exist but have not yet been published in peer-review publications, especially if data were generated to support drug label claims or if the study results refuted the initial hypothesis (Constable, Reference Constable2004; Wellman and O'Connor, Reference Wellman and O'Connor2007). It should be noted that a large number of studies were excluded because they evaluated the efficacy of AMs following a prophylaxis or metaphylaxis treatment approach, or because they defined ‘diarrhea’ based on fecal pathogen shedding instead of clinical signs.
In livestock clinical trials, the accuracy of the outcome measured has raised concerns due to incomplete reporting of methods and study design (Burns and O'Connor, Reference Burns and O'Connor2008; Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Elgie, Valcour, Saint-Onge, Thompson, Marcynuk and Snedeker2009; Winder et al., Reference Winder, Churchill, Sargeant, LeBlanc, O'Connor and Renaud2019). However, in the future, the standards of quality clinical trials may improve, as some relevant journals are now requesting authors to use the REFLECT statement (O'Connor et al., Reference O'Connor, Sargeant, Gardner, Dickson, Torrence, Dewey, Dohoo, Evans, Gray, Greiner, Keefe, Lefebvre, Morley, Ramirez, Sischo, Smith, Snedeker, Sofos, Ward and Wills2010), a guide for standardized design and reporting, prior to considering a manuscript for publication. In our SR, most studies were designed as challenge experiments. However, there are limitations associated with challenge studies, as they tend to result in exaggerated treatment effects and do not provide a high level of evidence for the effectiveness of an intervention in a commercial setting (Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Elgie, Valcour, Saint-Onge, Thompson, Marcynuk and Snedeker2009, Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Logue, Novy, O'Connor, Reist and Winder2019a).
Based on the current FDA indications, most studies included in the SR used AM outside label claims. Marbofloxacin (broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone for dogs and cats) and nitazoxanide (human cryptosporidiosis) are not labeled in the USA for use in cattle or calves, and ceftiofur, danofloxacin, and florfenicol are labeled for calf treatments but for ailments other than diarrhea. Ampicillin and amoxicillin were the only treatments with FDA approval for the treatment of Escherichia coli enteritis in calves. However, the treatment length of ampicillin in these studies was outside label recommendations. The extra-label use of fluoroquinolones (e.g. danofloxacin and marbofloxacin) and cephalosporins (e.g. ceftiofur) is totally prohibited in food animals due to the high risk of AMR emergence based on the ‘Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act of 1994’ and ‘21 Code Federal Regulations 530’ (FDA, 2021). Also, the route of administration differed across studies, orally (amoxicillin, marbofloxacin, and nitazoxanide) or injectable drugs (ampicillin, sulbactam:ampicillin, ceftiofur, florfenicol, and danofloxacin). Differences in route of administration may have also contributed to differences in treatment response; oral administration of AMs may induce changes in the microbiome and aggravate diarrhea presentation (Smith, Reference Smith2015).
Furthermore, our SR revealed that few relevant studies included, as an intervention, the most common AM chosen to treat calf diarrhea in California commercial operations (sulfonamides as the first choice; ceftiofur products as the second choice; Okello et al., Reference Okello, Williams, ElAshmawy, Adams, Pereira, Lehenbauer and Aly2021). Although the knowledge that SR provides about AM efficacy and effectiveness is important, it is clearly not the only metric of importance in AM selection. The work of veterinarians and practitioners is key to improving AM use in livestock; other relevant factors that guide veterinarians in AM treatment selection are treatment algorithms and protocols, AM stewardship guidelines, local AM prescribing policies, label recommendations, sensitivity testing results for target animals, and cost–benefit analysis (O'Connor et al., Reference O'Connor, Totton and Shane2019).
Consistent with previous SR in livestock, issues with the risk of bias assessment were observed related to incomplete reporting of the randomization process and the blindness of personnel who delivered treatments and outcome assessors (Francoz et al., Reference Francoz, Wellemans, Dupré, Roy, Labelle, Lacasse and Dufour2017; Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Hu, Moody, O'Connor, O'Sullivan, Reist, Wang, Wilhelm and Winder2019b). Randomization was classified as a high-risk grade based on unclear allocation to the treatment as the randomization process was not described, or randomization was not mentioned. The most frequent reason for a high-risk classification for blinding of both personnel who delivered treatments and outcome assessors was the absence of blinding reporting. The lack of blinding of personnel delivering treatments could influence the care for the calves during the study. Similarly, outcome assessment could be influenced by knowledge of the intervention delivered, especially for subjective outcomes, such as FCS and DH (Francoz et al., Reference Francoz, Wellemans, Dupré, Roy, Labelle, Lacasse and Dufour2017; Sterne et al., Reference Sterne, Savović, Page, Elbers, Blencowe, Boutron, Cates, Cheng, Corbett, Eldridge, Emberson, Hernán, Hopewell, Hróbjartsson, Junqueira, Jüni, Kirkham, Lasserson, Li, McAleenan, Reeves, Shepperd, Shrier, Stewart, Tilling, White, Whiting and Higgins2019). All relevant manuscripts except one were linked to a pharmaceutical company, and that could potentially introduce a source of bias. Furthermore, none of the studies included in our SR sample size calculation, which is consistent with previous reviews (Haimerl et al., Reference Haimerl, Arlt and Heuwieser2012; Winder et al., Reference Winder, Churchill, Sargeant, LeBlanc, O'Connor and Renaud2019). This might have introduced a publication bias, as underpowered studies with non-significant results are less likely to reach peer-review journals (Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Elgie, Valcour, Saint-Onge, Thompson, Marcynuk and Snedeker2009, Reference Sargeant, Bergevin, Churchill, Dawkins, Deb, Dunn, Logue, Novy, O'Connor, Reist and Winder2019a). The risk of bias tool was modified to introduce a new domain related to the definition of disease. Most studies were classified with a high risk of bias based on this domain, as the diarrhea definition was missing in about half of the studies, and when reported, the definition was only based on a single outcome. This could lead to biased results due to unnecessary AM administration to diarrheic calves without signs of systemic illness (Constable et al., Reference Constable, Pyörälä, Smith, Guardabassi, Jensen and Kruse2008). Our results are consistent with other SRs which highlighted the lack of disease definition in clinical trials in cattle (Naqvi et al., Reference Naqvi, Nobrega, Ronksley and Barkema2018). Similarly, treatment success and failure definitions were rarely reported; thus, it was difficult to accurately evaluate study results, assessment methods of treatment efficacy, and likely variation sources related to health definitions (Kelly and Janzen, Reference Kelly and Janzen1986; Wellman and O'Connor, Reference Wellman and O'Connor2007).
In the relevant manuscripts, the evaluation of clinical signs of health disorders was subjective and very diverse across studies. Although FCS was evaluated in all studies, the scoring systems varied highly, even when FCS had the same numerical scale. Additionally, many studies provided a vague description of the FCS categories with only two studies stating a reference; however, those references for FCS methods reported non-validated, unreferenced, and incomplete FCS evaluation methods. No other fecal features beyond consistency were evaluated, and diarrhea severity classification was provided in a single study. Some of the secondary clinical signs evaluated included DH, fever, anorexia, and depression, but their evaluation methods varied across studies, lacked references, and were subjective. DH was evaluated based on skin elasticity without considering body fat, skin location, animal position, and age (Constable et al., Reference Constable, Walker, Morin and Foreman1998). Four studies evaluated fever, but the difference between the maximum and minimum threshold for fever definition reached nearly 1°C across studies, and none of the studies accounted for possible inaccuracies in body temperature assessment related to physiological, environmental, and procedure methods (Hill et al., Reference Hill, Bateman, Suarez-Mena, Dennis and Schlotterbeck2016). Similarly, scoring systems for attitude and appetite were based on empirical and subjective measurements, and highly differed across studies. Overall, the lack of standardized evaluation methods across the 11 relevant studies was concerning, as low reliability in both the measurement of outcomes and health definitions could contribute to decreased statistical power and thereby an under- or over-estimation of treatment effects (Sargeant et al., Reference Sargeant, Elgie, Valcour, Saint-Onge, Thompson, Marcynuk and Snedeker2009). Over four decades ago, calf health evaluation guidelines were proposed to make reporting more uniform across research studies (Larson et al., Reference Larson, Owen, Albright, Appleman, Lamb and Muller1977); however, these guidelines have not been adopted, most likely because of their level of complexity (Kertz and Chester-Jones, Reference Kertz and Chester-Jones2004). Current industry guidelines for calf diarrhea suggest limiting AM treatments to calves with loose stools that also show systemic signs of illness (e.g. inappetence, DH, lethargy, pyrexia), blood or mucosal shreds in their stool, or concurrent infections (Constable et al., Reference Constable, Pyörälä, Smith, Guardabassi, Jensen and Kruse2008; McGuirk, Reference McGuirk2008). None of the relevant studies attained this definition; challenge studies treated all exposed animals, and in natural infection studies, treatment was merely based on FCS. Future studies should address this lack of standardized, validated calf health definitions, which results in heterogeneous treatment decisions and cure definitions. The incorporation and combination of validated health assessment methods are key to accurately identifying sick calves, increasing treatment success, and improving animal welfare both inside and outside of research (McGuirk, Reference McGuirk2008; Cramer et al., Reference Cramer, Ollivett and Stanton2016). Furthermore, standardized assessment methods would lead to greater uniformity in study designs (Larson et al., Reference Larson, Owen, Albright, Appleman, Lamb and Muller1977), making the interpretation and comparison of livestock experiments easier. Moreover, objective outcomes, such as ADG, mortality, and laboratory outcomes, could increase the reliability of studies and the ability to summarize the effect size of interventions. However, in our SR, only one study assessed ADG, six studies reported mortality, and the reported laboratory outcomes were highly diverse and limited to a single evaluation.
Finally, this SR had several strengths; it followed a protocol that was reported in accordance with PRISMA-P (Moher et al., Reference Moher, Shamseer, Clarke, Ghersi, Liberati, Petticrew, Shekelle and Stewart2015); it adhered to the guidelines for SR in animal agriculture and veterinary medicine (O'Connor et al., Reference O'Connor, Anderson, Goodell and Sargeant2014a, Reference O'Connor, Sargeant and Wang2014b; Sargeant and O'Connor, Reference Sargeant and O'Connor2014); the search strategy, which used multiple electronic databases, was designed with support from a librarian in order to identify the highest number of available studies; and to increase the reliability of the process, the screening, data extraction, and the risk of bias assessment were independently performed by two or more reviewers with a background in veterinary and animal science as well as in research synthesis methods (Sargeant and O'Connor, Reference Sargeant and O'Connor2014).
On the other hand, our SR could have some limitations. We did not consider gray literature as a relevant source. On average, only 50% of abstracts reporting the results of RCTs reach full publication, and the calculated abstract-to-publication ratio for some bovine conferences is <10% (Dickersin et al., Reference Dickersin, Scherer and Lefebvre1994; Brace et al., Reference Brace, Taylor and O'Connor2010). Thus, excluding these studies could result in lower precision in the estimate of intervention effect and may result in biased results by introducing publication bias (Dickersin et al., Reference Dickersin, Scherer and Lefebvre1994; Sargeant and O'Connor, Reference Sargeant and O'Connor2014). However, excluding gray literature may have had a limited impact, as it usually involves short abstracts with not enough data to conduct research synthesis methods (Burns and O'Connor, Reference Burns and O'Connor2008; Brace et al., Reference Brace, Taylor and O'Connor2010; Sargeant and O'Connor, Reference Sargeant and O'Connor2014). Another source of bias may be the exclusion of potentially relevant articles published in a language other than English. In veterinary medicine, the impact of language restrictions remains unknown (Burns and O'Connor, Reference Burns and O'Connor2008), while in human medicine, limiting the language of publication of trial reports to English in SR of conventional interventions (e.g. AMs) does not change the estimates of the effectiveness of an intervention (Moher et al., Reference Moher, Pham, Lawson and Klassen2003; Pham et al., Reference Pham, Klassen, Lawson and Moher2005). Therefore, the impact of exclusion of manuscripts in languages other than English was likely minimal in the present SR.
Conclusions
At present, the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea cannot be evaluated using MA methods, as the SR identified few relevant studies testing heterogeneous interventions. Our SR revealed important limitations in study design and reporting, which future studies should overcome in order to perform a valuable MA evaluation of the efficacy of AMs in the treatment of calf diarrhea. The interventions tested should reflect common on-farm treatment approaches, the research community needs to reach an agreement on the definition and outcome evaluation systems of diarrheal disease, and studies should adhere to reporting guidelines.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0nw528h4#supplemental.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from all members of the Dr Silva-del-Río Lab for their contributions, and special thanks to Dr Ainhoa Valldecabres for her support in developing the forest plots.
Financial support
Financial support for this research was partially provided by the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) Antimicrobial Use Stewardship Program (the sponsor had no role in either protocol or review).
Conflict of interest
No author has conflicts to declare.
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