Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T15:07:08.244Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The role of wildlife in transboundary animal diseases

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 May 2011

J. L. Siembieda ,
R. A. Kock ,
T. A. McCracken  and
S. H. Newman
J. L. Siembieda*
Affiliation:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases, Wildlife Health and Ecology Unit, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
R. A. Kock
Affiliation:
Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK
T. A. McCracken
Affiliation:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases, Wildlife Health and Ecology Unit, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
S. H. Newman
Affiliation:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases, Wildlife Health and Ecology Unit, Animal Production and Health Division, Rome, Italy
*
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper identifies some of the more important diseases at the wildlife–livestock interface and the role wildlife plays in disease transmission. Domestic livestock, wildlife and humans share many similar pathogens. Pathogens of wild or domestic animal origin that can cause infections in humans are known as zoonotic organisms and the converse are termed as anthroponotic organisms. Seventy-seven percent of livestock pathogens and 91% of domestic carnivore pathogens are known to infect multiple hosts, including wildlife. Understanding this group of pathogens is critical to public health safety, because they infect a wide range of hosts and are most likely to emerge as novel causes of infection in humans and domestic animals. Diseases at the wildlife–livestock interface, particularly those that are zoonotic, must be an area of focus for public health programs and surveillance for emerging infectious diseases. Additionally, understanding wildlife and their role is a vital part of understanding the epidemiology and ecology of diseases. To do this, a multi-faceted approach combining capacity building and training, wildlife disease surveillance, wildlife–livestock interface and disease ecology studies, data and information sharing and outbreak investigation are needed.

Keywords

wildlife–livestock interfacediseasepathogenanthroponoseszoonoseswildlifelivestock
Type
Review Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 12 , Issue 1 , June 2011 , pp. 95 - 111
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abubakar, M, Jamal, SM, Arshed, MJ, Hussain, M and Ali, Q (2009). Peste des petits ruminants virus infection; its association with species, seasonal variations and geography. Tropical Animal Health and Production 41: 1197–1202.Google Scholar
Alexander, DJ (2000). Newcastle disease and other avian paramyxoviruses. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 19: 443–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, DJ (2007). An overview of the epidemiology of avian influenza. Vaccine 25: 5637–5644.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, TJL (2004). Encephalomyocarditis virus infection. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 1310–1312.Google Scholar
Ali, AA, Esmat, M, Attia, H, Selim, A and Abdel-Hamid, YM (1990). Clinical and pathological studies on lumpy skin disease in Egypt. Veterinary Record 127: 549–550.Google ScholarPubMed
Allsopp, BA, Bezuidenhout, JD and Prozesky, L (2004). Heartwater. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 507–535.Google Scholar
Artois, M, Depner, KR, Guberti, V, Hars, J, Rossi, S and Rutili, D (2002). Classical swine fever (hog cholera) in wild boar in Europe. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 21: 287–303.Google Scholar
Baldock, C, Forman, T, Geering, B and Taylor, B (1999). New Technologies in the fight against transboundary animal diseases. In: FAO-Japan Cooperative Project: Collection of Information on Animal Production and Health. Rome, Italy: The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.Google Scholar
Barber, TL, Stone, SS and Delay, PD (1970). Antibody in cattle experimentally infected with contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Infection and Immunity 2: 617–622.Google Scholar
Beard, PM, Stevenson, K, Pirie, A, Rudge, K, Buxton, D, Rhind, SM, Sinclair, MC, Wildblood, LA, Jones, DG and Sharp, JM (2001). Experimental paratuberculosis in calves following inoculation with a rabbit isolate of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39: 3080–3084.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, LM, Hayles, LB and Chanda, AB (1976). Evidence of reservior hosts of Brucella mellitensis. Medical Journal of Zambia 10: 152–153.Google ScholarPubMed
Bengis, RG, Kock, RA and Fischer, J (2002). Infectious animal diseases: the wildlife/livestock interface. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 21: 53–65.Google Scholar
Beyer, W and Turnbull, PC (2009). Anthrax in animals. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 30: 481–489.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bronsvoort, BM, Parida, S, Handel, I, McFarland, S, Fleming, L, Hamblin, P and Kock, R (2008). Serological survey for foot-and-mouth disease virus in wildlife in eastern Africa and estimation of test parameters of a nonstructural protein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for buffalo. Clinical Vaccine Immunology 15: 1003–1011.Google Scholar
Buddle, BM, Wedlock, DN and Denis, M (2006). Progress in the development of tuberculosis vaccines for cattle and wildlife. Veterinary Microbiology 112: 191–200.Google Scholar
Buergelt, CD, Bastianello, SS and Michel, AL (2004). Paratuberculosis. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 2. 2nd edn.Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 1994–2008.Google Scholar
Butler, KL, Fitzgerald, SD, Berry, DE, Church, SV, Reed, WM and Kaneene, JB (2001). Experimental inoculation of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) and American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) with Mycobacterium bovis. Avian Diseases 45: 709–718.Google Scholar
Capua, I and Marangon, S (2006). Control of avian influenza infections in poultry with emphasis on vaccination. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 4: 751–757.Google Scholar
Capua, I and Marangon, S (2007). Control and prevention of avian influenza in an evolving scenario. Vaccine 25: 5645–5652.Google Scholar
Cleaveland, S, Laurenson, MK and Taylor, LH (2001). Diseases of humans and their domestic mammals: pathogen characteristics, host range and the risk of emergence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 356: 991–999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clegg, SB, Turnbull, PC, Foggin, CM and Lindeque, PM (2007). Massive outbreak of anthrax in wildlife in the Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve, Zimbabwe. Veterinary Record 160: 113–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coetzer, JAW (2004). Lumpy skin disease. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.Google Scholar
Coetzer, JAW and Guthrie, AJ (2004). African horse sickness. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 1231–1246.Google Scholar
Conner, RJ and Van Den Bossche, P (2004). African animal trypanosomoses. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 251–296.Google Scholar
Corn, JL, Manning, EJ, Sreevatsan, S and Fischer, JR (2005). Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from free-ranging birds and mammals on livestock premises. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71: 6963–6967.Google Scholar
Corner, LA (2006). The role of wild animal populations in the epidemiology of tuberculosis in domestic animals: how to assess the risk. Veterinary Microbiology 112: 303–312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Couacy-Hymann, E, Bodjo, C, Danho, T, Libeau, G and Diallo, A (2005). Surveillance of wildlife as a tool for monitoring rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants in West Africa. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 24: 869–877.Google Scholar
Cousins, DV, Huchzermeyer, HFK, Griffin, JFT, Van Rensburg, IBJ and Kriek, NPJ (2004). Tuberculosis. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 3. 2nd edn.Cape Town, Southern Africa: Oxford University Press, pp. 1973–1993.Google Scholar
Daniels, MJ, Henderson, D, Greig, A, Stevenson, K, Sharp, JM and Hutchings, MR (2003a). The potential role of wild rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus in the epidemiology of paratuberculosis in domestic ruminants. Epidemiology and Infection 130: 553–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daniels, MJ, Lees, JD, Hutchings, MR and Greig, A (2003b). The ranging behaviour and habitat use of rabbits on farmland and their potential role in the epidemiology of paratuberculosis. Veterinary Journal 165: 248–257.Google Scholar
Daniels, PW, Halpin, K, Hyatt, A and Middleton, D (2007). Infection and disease in reservoir and spillover hosts: determinants of pathogen emergence. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 315: 113–131.Google ScholarPubMed
Daniels, PW, Shahirudin, S, Aziz, J and Ong, BL (2004). Nipah virus disease. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 2. 2nd edn.Cape Town, Southern Africa: Oxford University Press, pp. 692–697.Google Scholar
Davies, G (2002). Foot and mouth disease. Research in Veterinary Science 73: 195–199.Google Scholar
Davis, DS (1990). Brucellosis in wildlife. In: Nielsen, K and Duncan, RJ (eds) Animal Brucellosis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 321–334.Google Scholar
de Lisle, GW, Bengis, RG, Schmitt, SM and O'Brien, DJ (2002). Tuberculosis in free-ranging wildlife: detection, diagnosis and management. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 21: 317–334.Google Scholar
de Vos, V and Turnbull, PC (2004). Anthrax. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 1788–1818.Google Scholar
Elzein, EM, Housawi, FM, Bashareek, Y, Gameel, AA, Al-Afaleq, AI and Anderson, E (2004). Severe PPR infection in gazelles kept under semi-free range conditions. Journal of Veterinary Medicine. B, Infectious Diseases and Veterinary Public Health 51: 68–71.Google Scholar
Falconi, C, Lopez-Olvera, JR and Gortazar, C (2011). BTV infection in wild ruminants, with emphasis on red deer: a review. Veterinary Microbiology, in press.Google Scholar
FAO (2008). Foot-and-mouth disease. In EMPRES Transboundary Animal Diseases Bulletin. Rome, Italy: FAO, Animal Production and Health Division, Vol. 32, pp. 13–19.Google Scholar
FAO (2010). Food and Agricultural Organization. Hunger. http://www.fao.org/hunger/en/. Vol. 2010.Google Scholar
Fauquet, CM, Mayo, MA, Maniloff, J, Desselberger, U and Ball, LA (2005). Virus Taxonmony. Eighth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press.Google Scholar
Glaser, LC, Barker, IK, Weseloh, DV, Ludwig, J, Windingstad, RM, Key, DW and Bollinger, TK (1999). The 1992 epizootic of Newcastle disease in double-crested cormorants in North America. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 35: 319–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Godfroid, J (2002). Brucellosis in wildlife. Revue scientifique et technique de l'office international des épizooties 21: 277–286.Google Scholar
Govindarajan, R, Koteeswaran, A, Venugopalan, AT, Shyam, G, Shaouna, S, Shaila, MS and Ramachandran, S (1997). Isolation of pestes des petits ruminants virus from an outbreak in Indian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Veterinary Record 141: 573–574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greth, A, Gourreau, JM, Vassart, M, Nguyen Ba, V, Wyers, M and Lefevre, PC (1992). Capripoxvirus disease in an Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) from Saudi Arabia. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28: 295–300.Google Scholar
Grobler, DG, Raath, JP, Braack, LE, Keet, DF, Gerdes, GH, Barnard, BJ, Kriek, NP, Jardine, J and Swanepoel, R (1995). An outbreak of encephalomyocarditis-virus infection in free-ranging African elephants in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 62: 97–108.Google Scholar
Hargreaves, SK, Foggin, CM, Anderson, EC, Bastos, AD, Thomson, GR, Ferris, NP and Knowles, NJ (2004). An investigation into the source and spread of foot and mouth disease virus from a wildlife conservancy in Zimbabwe. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 23: 783–790.Google Scholar
Haydon, DT, Cleaveland, S, Taylor, LH and Laurenson, MK (2002). Identifying reservoirs of infection: a conceptual and practical challenge. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8: 1468–1473.Google Scholar
Hudson, PJ (2002). In: Hudson, PJ (ed) The Ecology of Wildlife Diseases. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hugh-Jones, ME and de Vos, V (2002). Anthrax and wildlife. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'office International des Épizooties 21: 359–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, P (2004). Leptospirosis. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 2. 2nd edn. Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press, pp. 1445–1458.Google Scholar
Jenkins, DJ, Romig, T and Thompson, RC (2005). Emergence/re-emergence of Echinococcus spp. – a global update. International Journal for Parasitology 35: 1205–1219.Google Scholar
Jenkins, HE, Woodroffe, R and Donnelly, CA (2010). The duration of the effects of repeated widespread badger culling on cattle tuberculosis following the cessation of culling. PLoS ONE 5: e9090.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jessup, DA and Williams, ES (1999). Paratuberculosis in free-ranging wildlife in North America. In: Fowler, ME and Miller, RE (eds) Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, 4th edn. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, pp. 616–620.Google Scholar
Jori, E, Vosloo, W, Du Plessis, B, Bengis, R, Brahmbhatt, D, Gummow, B and Thomson, GR (2009). A qualitative risk assessment of factors contributing to foot and mouth disease outbreaks in cattle along the western boundary of the Kruger National Park. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'Office International des Épizooties 28: 917–931.Google Scholar
Keet, DF, Hunter, P, Bengis, RG, Bastos, A and Thomson, GR (1996). The 1992 foot-and-mouth disease epizootic in the Kruger National Park. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 67: 83–87.Google Scholar
Kleiboeker, SB (2002). Swine fever: classical swine fever and Afri-can swine fever. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 18: 431–451.Google Scholar
Kock, RA (2008). The role of wildlife in the epidemiology of Rinderpest in East and Central Africa 1994–2004: A study based on serological surveillance and disease investigation. Thesis, Vet MD (Veterinary Medical Doctor). Veterinary Medicine. University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.Google Scholar
Kock, RA, Wambua, JM, Mwanzia, J, Wamwayi, H, Ndungu, EK, Barrett, T, Kock, ND and Rossiter, PB (1999). Rinderpest epidemic in wild ruminants in Kenya 1993–97. Veterinary Record 145: 275–283.Google Scholar
Kock, RA, Wamwayi, HM, Rossiter, PB, Libeau, G, Wambwa, E, Okori, J, Shiferaw, FS and Mlengeya, TD (2006). Re-infection of wildlife populations with rinderpest virus on the periphery of the Somali ecosystem in East Africa. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 75: 63–80.Google Scholar
Kruse, H, Kirkemo, AM and Handeland, K (2004). Wildlife as source of zoonotic infections. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10: 2067–2072.Google Scholar
Kuiken, T (1999). Review of Newcastle disease in cormorants. Waterbirds 22: 333–347.Google Scholar
Lawrence, JA, Perry, BD and Williamson, SM (2004). East Coast Fever. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 448–467.Google Scholar
Leighton, FA and Kuiken, T (2001). Leptospirosis. In: Williams, ES and Barker, IK (eds) Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals, 3rd edn. Vol. 1. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, pp. 498–501.Google Scholar
Liu, J, Xiao, H, Lei, F, Zhu, Q, Qin, K, Zhang, XW, Zhang, XL, Zhao, D, Wang, G, Feng, Y, Ma, J, Liu, W, Wang, J and Gao, GF (2005). Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus infection in migratory birds. Science 309: 1206.Google Scholar
Lo, MK and Rota, PA (2008). The emergence of Nipah virus, a highly pathogenic paramyxovirus. Journal of Clinical Virology 43: 396–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLachlan, NJ and Osburn, BI (2004). Epizootic haemorrhagic disease of deer. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 1227–1230.Google Scholar
Manning, EJ, Kucera, TE, Gates, NB, Woods, LM and Fallon-McKnight, M (2003). Testing for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in asymptomatic free-ranging tule elk from an infected herd. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39: 323–328.Google Scholar
Mansfield, K, McElhinney, L, Hubschle, O, Mettler, F, Sabeta, C, Nel, LH and Fooks, AR (2006). A molecular epidemiological study of rabies epizootics in kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) in Namibia. BMC Veterinary Research 2: 2.Google Scholar
Mansfield, KL, Johnson, N, Phipps, LP, Stephenson, JR, Fooks, AR and Solomon, T (2009). Tick-borne encephalitis virus – a review of an emerging zoonosis. Journal of General Virology 90: 1781–1794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manyibe, T, Low, B and Chege, G (2006). Mass Vaccinations of Grevy's Zebra against Anthrax in Northern Kenya. In: Kenya Wildlife Service. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Wildlife Service.Google Scholar
Meteyer, CU, Gonzales, BJ, Heuschele, WP and Howard, EB (1989). Epidemiologic and pathologic aspects of an epizootic of malignant catarrhal fever in exotic hoofstock. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 25: 280–286.Google Scholar
Mlengeya, T, Mbise, AN, Kilewo, M, Mlengeya, M, Gereta, E and Moshy, WE (1998). Anthrax epizootics in Tanzania's national parks with special interest in a recent anthrax outbreak in Serengeti National Park. Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 46: 65–73.Google Scholar
Morner, T and Addison, E (2001). Tularemia. In: Williams, ES and Barker, IK (eds) Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals, 3rd edn. Vol. 1. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, pp. 303–312.Google Scholar
Muoria, PK, Muruthi, P, Kariuki, WK, Hassan, BA, Mijele, D and Oguge, NO (2009). Anthrax outbreak among Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi) in Samburu, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 45: 483–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, PR (2003). Manual of Clinical Microbiology. Washington DC: ASM Press.Google Scholar
Mushi, EZ and Rurangirwa, FR (1981). Epidemiology of bovine malignant catarrhal fevers, a review. Veterinary Research Communication 5: 127–142.Google Scholar
Newman, SH, Siembieda, JLS, Kock, R, McCracken, T, Khomenko, S and Mundkur, T (2010). FAO EMPRES Wildlife Unit Fact Sheet: Wildlife and H5N1 HPAI Virus – Current Knowledge. Rome, Italy: Animal Production and Health Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Google Scholar
Nyamsuren, D, Joly, DO, Enkhtuvshin, S, Odonkhuu, D, Olson, KA, Draisma, M and Karesh, WB (2006). Exposure of Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa) to foot and mouth disease virus. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42: 154–158.Google Scholar
Paling, RW, Waghela, S, Macowan, KJ and Heath, BR (1988). The occurrence of infectious diseases in mixed farming of domesticated wild herbivores and livestock in Kenya. II. Bacterial diseases. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 24: 308–316.Google Scholar
Pappas, G (2010). The changing Brucella ecology: novel reservoirs, new threats. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 36 (suppl. 1): S8–11.Google Scholar
Parrish, CR, Holmes, EC, Morens, DM, Park, EC, Burke, DS, Calisher, CH, Laughlin, CA, Saif, LJ and Daszak, P (2008). Cross-species virus transmission and the emergence of new epidemic diseases. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Review 72: 457–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfeffer, M and Dobler, G (2010). Emergence of zoonotic arboviruses by animal trade and migration. Parasites and Vectors 3: 35.Google Scholar
Pietrokovsky, S, Sousa-Figueiredo, J, Stothard, JR and Wisnivesky-Colli, C (2009). Fasciola hepatica infections in livestock flock, guanacos and coypus in two wildlife reserves in Argentina. Veterinary Parasitology 165: 341–344.Google Scholar
Pinto, AA (2004). Foot-and-mouth disease in tropical wildlife. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1026: 65–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plowright, W (1968). Rinderpest virus. In: Gard, S, Hallauer, C and Meyer, KF (eds) Virology Monographs 3. New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 26–110.Google Scholar
Pollock, JM and Neill, SD (2002). Mycobacterium bovis infection and tuberculosis in cattle. Veterinary Journal 163: 115–127.Google Scholar
Potgieter, FT and Stoltsz, WH (2004). Bovine anaplasmosis. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 594–616.Google Scholar
ProMed-mail (2009a). Newcastle disease, pigeons – Italy (Toscana). Archive number 20091204.4142.Google Scholar
ProMed-mail (2009b). Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia – Zambia. Archive Number 20090425.1559.Google Scholar
ProMed-mail (2010a). Anthrax, Hippopotamus – Uganda (03): (Queen Elizabeth National Park) confirmed plus elephants. Archive Number 20100623.2100.Google Scholar
ProMed-mail (2010b). Newcastle disease, water birds – USA. Archive number 20100910.3260.Google Scholar
Reid, HW and Van Vuuren, M (2004). Malignant Catarrhal fever. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 895–908.Google Scholar
Reed, KD, Meece, JK, Henkel, JS and Shukla, SK (2003). Birds, migration and emerging zoonoses: west nile virus, lyme disease, influenza A and enteropathogens. Clinical Medicine and Research 1: 5–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, MW and Dalton, JP (2009). Zoonotic helminth infections with particular emphasis on fasciolosis and other trematodiases. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 364: 2763–2776.Google Scholar
Roeder, PL and Taylor, WP (2002). Rinderpest. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 18: 515–547, ix.Google Scholar
Rossiter, PB (2004). Peste des petits ruminants. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 2. 2nd edn.Cape Town, Southern Africa: Oxford University Press, pp. 660–672.Google Scholar
Rupprecht, CE, Stohr, K and Meredith, C. (2001). Rabies. In: Williams, ES and Barker, IK (eds). Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals, 3rd edn. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, pp. 3–36.Google Scholar
Russell, GC, Stewart, JP and Haig, DM (2009). Malignant catarrhal fever: a review. Veterinary Journal 179: 324–335.Google Scholar
Shimalov, VV and Shimalov, VT (2000). Findings of Fasciola hepatica Linnaeus, 1758 in wild animals in Belorussian Polesie. Parasitology Research 86: 527.Google Scholar
Spinage, CA (2003). Cattle Plague: a History. New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.Google Scholar
Stegeman, A, Elbers, A, de Smit, H, Moser, H, Smak, J and Pluimers, F (2000). The 1997–1998 epidemic of classical swine fever in the Netherlands. Veterinary Microbiology 73: 183–196.Google Scholar
Sumption, KJ and Scott, GR (2004). Lesser-known rickettsias infecting livestock. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 1. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 543–544.Google Scholar
Swanepoel, R (2004). Rabies. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds). Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 2. 2nd edn.Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. pp. 1123–1182.Google Scholar
Swanepoel, R and Laurenson, MK (2004). Louping ill. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 2. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.Google Scholar
Taylor, WP (2006). Conclusions. In: Barrett, T, Pastoret, P-P and Taylor, W (eds) Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants: Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants (Biology of Animal Infections). London, UK: Academic Press, Elsevier Ltd, pp. 323–325.Google Scholar
Taylor, LH, Latham, SM and Woolhouse, ME (2001). Risk factors for human disease emergence. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences 356: 983–989.Google Scholar
Thiaucourt, F, Van Der Lugt, JJ and Provost, A (2004). Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, 2nd edn. Vol. 3. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa, pp. 2045–2059.Google Scholar
Thomson, GR and Bastos, ADS. (2004). Foot-and-mouth disease. In: Coetzer, JAW and Tustin, RC (eds) Infectious Diseases of Livestock, Vol. 2. 2nd edn.Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press, pp. 1424.Google Scholar
Thomson, GR, Tambi, EN, Hargreaves, SK, Leyland, TJ, Catley, AP, van't Klooster, GG and Penrith, ML (2004). International trade in livestock and livestock products: the need for a commodity-based approach. Veterinary Record 155: 429–433.Google Scholar
Thomson, GR, Vosloo, W and Bastos, AD (2003). Foot and mouth disease in wildlife. Virus Research 91: 145–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tulman, ER, Delhon, GA, Ku, BK and Rock, DL (2009). African swine fever virus. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 328: 43–87.Google Scholar
VandeWoude, S and Apetrei, C (2006). Going wild: lessons from naturally occurring T-lymphotropic lentiviruses. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 19: 728–762.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vinetz, J, Wilcox, B, Aguirre, A, Gollin, L, Katz, A, Fujioka, R, Maly, K, Horwitz, P and Chang, H (2005). Beyond disciplinary boundaries: leptospirosis as a model of incorporating transdisciplinary approaches to understand infectious disease emergence. EcoHealth 2: 1–16.Google Scholar
Wallace, RG, Bergmann, L, Hogerwerf, L and Gilbert, M (2010). Are influenzas in southern China byproducts of the region's globalising historical present? In: Giles-Vernick, T, Craddock, S and Gun, JL (eds) Influenza and Public Health: Learning from Past Pandemics. London, UK: Earthscan, pp. 101–144.Google Scholar
Ward, MP, Laffan, SW and Highfield, LD (2007). The potential role of wild and feral animals as reservoirs of foot-and-mouth disease. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 80: 9–23.Google Scholar
Webster, RG, Bean, WJ, Gorman, OT, Chambers, TM and Kawaoka, Y (1992). Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. Microbiological Reviews 56: 152–179.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, D, Bennett, R, McFarlane, I, Rushton, S, Shirley, M and Smith, GC (2009). Cost-benefit analysis model of badger (Meles meles) culling to reduce cattle herd tuberculosis breakdowns in Britain, with particular reference to badger perturbation. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45: 1062–1088.Google Scholar
Williams, ES (2001). Paratuberculosis and other mycobacterial diseases. In: Williams, ES and Barker, IK (eds) Infectious Diseases of Wild Mammals, 3rd edn.Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, pp. 361–371.Google Scholar
Williams, ES, Yuill, T, Artois, M, Fischer, J and Haigh, SA (2002). Emerging infectious diseases in wildlife. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'Office International des Épizooties 21: 139–157.Google Scholar
Zacks, MA and Paessler, S (2010). Encephalitic alphaviruses. Veterinary Microbiology 140: 281–286.Google Scholar