No CrossRef data available.
Article contents
Equine cardiovascular pathology: an overview
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 28 February 2007
Abstract
The few data collections that evaluate the involvement of organ systems in horse diseases are in agreement that the locomotor, gastrointestinal and nervous systems are the sites of primary disease in the vast majority of sick horses. When compared with diseases of these organ systems, equine cardiovascular diseases occur infrequently. The most detailed and comprehensive survey of equine cardiac pathology was reported in 1972 by Else and Holmes, who summarized the gross and microscopic cardiac findings from 1500 abattoir horses. This paper reviews the pathology of the cardiovascular diseases typically encountered in horses. Most of the pathological examples are from the files of the Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital at the University of Florida, encompassing 24 years (1978–2002) and some 6000 equine necropsy cases. Preceding the specific topics are principles of the anatomy and function of the normal equine heart. Pathological entities include equine congenital cardiovascular diseases, acquired diseases of the pericardium, myocardium, endocardium and valves, cardiac neoplasms, and common equine vascular diseases and vascular neoplasms. Extensive use is made of photographs to illustrate the features of individual case examples.
Keywords
- Type
- Review Article
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © CAB International 2003
References
Amend, J, Mallon, FM, Wren, WB and Ramos, AP (1980). Equine monensin toxicosis: some experimental clinicopathological observations. Compendium of Continuing Education 11: S173–S179.Google Scholar
Angsubhakorn, S, Poomwises, P, Romruen, K and Newberne, PM (1981). Aflatoxicosis in horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 178: 274–278.Google ScholarPubMed
Baker, JR and Ellis, CE (1981). A survey of post mortem findings in 480 horses. 1958–1980. I. Causes of death. Equine Veterinary Journal 13: 43–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, D and Kreeger, J (1987). Infiltrative lipoma in the heart of a horse. Cornell Veterinarian 77: 258–262.Google ScholarPubMed
Ball, MA and Weldon, AD (1992). Vegetative endocarditis in an Appaloosa gelding. Cornell Veterinarian 82: 301–309.Google Scholar
Bayley, WM, Reed, SM, Leathers, CW, Brown, CM, Traub, JL, Paradis, MR and Palmer, GH (1982). Multiple congenital heart anomalies in five Arabian foals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 181: 684–689.Google Scholar
Belgrave, RL, Hines, MT, Lahmers, KK, Sellon, DC and Tobias, AH (2002). Endocardial fibroelastosis in a Thoroughbred foal. Equine Veterinary Education 14: 77–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bernard, W, Reef, VB, Clark, ES, Vaala, W and Ehnen, SJ (1990). Pericarditis in horses: six cases (1982–1986). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 196: 468–471.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, S (1999). Spinal cord compression secondary to hemangiosarcoma in a saddlebred stallion. Canadian Veterinary Journal 40: 886–887.Google Scholar
Birks, EK and Hultgren, BD (1998). Pericardial haemangiosarcoma in a horse. Journal of Comparative Pathology 99: 105–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bolton, JR, Lees, MJ, Robinson, WF, Thomas, JB and Klein, KT (1990). Ocular neoplasms of vascular origin in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal Supplement (September) (10): 73–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonagura, JD (1985). Equine heart diseases. A review. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Equine Practice 1: 267–274.Google Scholar
Brown, CM, Bell, TG, Paradis, MR and Breeze, RG (1983). Rupture of mitral chordae tendineae in two horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 182: 281–283.Google ScholarPubMed
Brumbaugh, GW, Thomas, WP and Hodge, TG (1982). Medical management of congestive heart failure in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 180: 878–883.Google ScholarPubMed
Buergelt, CD (1999). Sudden death. In: Colahan, PT, Mayhew, JG, Merritt, AM and Moore, JN (editors). Equine Medicine and Surgery. 5th edn. St Louis: Mosby pp. 40–45.Google Scholar
Buergelt, CD and Young, A (1992). Equine necropsy procedures in practice. Part I. Equine Veterinary Education 4: 164–171.Google Scholar
Buergelt, CD, Carmichael, JA, Tashjian, RJ and Das, KM (1970). Spontaneous rupture of the left pulmonary artery in a horse with patent ductus arteriosus. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 157: 313–320.Google Scholar
Buergelt, CD, Cooley, AJ, Hines, SA and Pipers, FS (1985). Endocarditis in six horses. Veterinary Pathology 22: 333–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buergelt, CD, Wilson, JH and Lombard, CW (1990). Pericarditis in horses. Compendium of Continuing Education 12: 872–877.Google Scholar
Butt, TD, MacDonald, DG, Crowford, WH and Dechant, JE (1998). Persistent right aortic arch in a yearling horse. Canadian Veterinary Journal 39: 714–715.Google Scholar
Cantin, M and Genest, J (1986). The heart as an endocrine gland. Scientific American 254: 76–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cargile, J, Lombard, C, Wilson, JH and Buergelt, CD (1991). Tetralogy of Fallot and segmental uterine aplasia in a three-year-old Morgan filly. Cornell Veterinarian 81: 411–417.Google Scholar
Carmichael, JA, Buergelt, CD, Lord, PF and Tashjian, RJ (1971). Diagnosis of patent ductus arteriosus in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 158: 767–775.Google ScholarPubMed
Carrime, BL, Schneider, G, Cook, JE and Leipold, HW (1977). Pericardial mesothelioma in a horse. Veterinary Pathology 14: 513–515.Google Scholar
Chaffin, MK, Miller, MW and Morris, EL (1992). Double outlet right ventricle and other associated congenital cardiac anomalies in an American Miniature Horse foal. Equine Veterinary Journal 24: 402–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chirnside, ED (1992). Equine arteritis virus: an overview. British Veterinary Journal 148: 181–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Church, S, Harrigan, KE, Irving, AE and Peel, MM (1998). Endocarditis caused by Pasteurella caballi in a horse. Australian Veterinary Journal 76: 518–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohrs, P (1961). Haemomelasma ilei. In: Nieberle, K and Cohrs, P (editors). Lehrbuch der Speziellen Pathologie der Haustiere. 4th edn. Jena: VEB Gustav Fischer, p. 426.Google Scholar
Colahan, PT, Mayhew, JG, Merritt, AM and Moore, JN (editors) (1999). Equine Medicine and Surgery. 5 th edn. St Louis: Mosby.Google Scholar
Collins, MB, Hodgson, DR, Hutchin, DR and McConogh, FF (1994). Haemangiosarcoma in the horse: three cases. Australian Veterinary Journal 71: 296–298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cornelise, CJ, Schott, HC, Olivier, NB, Mullaney, TP, Koller, A, Wilson, DV and Derksen,, FJ (2000). Concentration of cardiac troponin I in a horse with a ruptured aortic regurgitation jet lesion and ventricular tachycardia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 217: 231–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cottrill, CM and Rossdale, PD (1992). A comparison of congenital heart diseases in horses and man. Equine Veterinary Journal 24: 338–340.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cranley, JJ and McCullagh, KG (1981). Ischaemic myocardial fibrosis and aortic strongylosis in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 13: 35–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crawford, WH (1982). Aortic–iliac thrombosis in a horse. Canadian Veterinary Journal 23: 59–61.Google ScholarPubMed
Davis, JL, Gardner, SY, Schwabenton, B and Breuhaus, BA (2002). Congestive heart failure in horses: 14 cases (1984–2001). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 220: 1512–1515.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLay, J, Peregrine, AS and Parsons, DA (2001). Verminous arteritis in a 3-month-old Thoroughbred foal. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 42: 289–291.Google Scholar
Dill, SG, Simoncini, DC, Bolton, GR, Rendano, VT, Crissman, JW, King, JM and Tennant, BC (1982). Fibrinous pericarditis in the horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 180: 266–271.Google ScholarPubMed
de Oliveira, AC, Rosenbruch, M and Schulz, LC (1985). Intimal asteroid bodies in horses: light and electron-microscopic observations. Veterinary Pathology 22: 226–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DelPierro, F (2000). Equine viral arteritis. Veterinary Pathology 37: 287–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dickinson, CE, Traub-Dargatz, JL, Dargatz, DA, Bennett, DG and Knight, AP (1996). Rattlesnake venom poisoning in horses: 32 cases (1973–1993). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 208: 1866–1871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudan, F, Rossi, GL and Luginbuehl, H (1984). Etude cardiovasculaire chez le cheval: relation entre les alterations vasculaires et tissulaires du myocard: deuxieme partie: résultats. Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde 126: 527–538.Google Scholar
Dudan, F, Rossi, GL and Luginbuehl, H (1985). Etude cardiovasculaire chez le cheval: relation entre les alterations vasculaires et tissulaires: troisieme partie: résultats. Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde 127: 319–338.Google Scholar
Else, RW and Holmes, JR (1972a). Cardiac pathology in the horse. (I) Gross pathology. Equine Veterinary Journal 4: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Else, RW and Holmes, JR (1972b). Cardiac pathology in the horse. (II) Microscopic pathology. Equine Veterinary Journal 4: 57–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, DL (1985). Cardiovascular adaptation to exercise and training in the horse. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Equine Practice 1: 513–531.Google Scholar
Ewart, S, Brown, C, Derksen, F and Kufuor-Mensa, E (1992). Serratia marcescens endocarditis in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 200: 961–964.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrelly, BT (1954). The pathogenesis and significance of parasitic endarteritis and thrombosis in the ascending aorta of the horse. Veterinary Record 66: 53–61.Google Scholar
Foss, RR (1985). Effusive-constrictive pericarditis: diagnosis and pathology. Veterinary Medicine 80: 89–97.Google Scholar
Freestone, JF, Thomas, WP, Carlson, GP and Brumbaugh, GW (1987). Idiopathic effusive pericarditis with tamponade in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 19: 38–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frye, FL, Knight, HD and Brown, SI (1983). Hemangiosarcoma in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 182: 287–289.Google ScholarPubMed
Galan, JE and Timoney, JF (1985). Immune complexes in purpura hemorrhagica of the horse contain IgA and M antigen of Streptococci equi. Journal of Immunology 135: 3134–3137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galey, FD, Holstege, DM, Plumblee, KH, Tor, E, Johnson, B, Anderson, ML, Blanchard, PC and Brown, F (1996). Diagnosis of oleander poisoning in livestock. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 8: 358–364.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gelberg, HB, Zachary, JF, Everitt, JI, Jensen, RC and Smetzer, DL (1985). Sudden death in training and racing Thoroughbred horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 187: 1354–1356.Google ScholarPubMed
Georgi, JR (1973). The Kikuchi–Enigk model of Strongylus vulgaris migrations in the horse. Cornell Veterinarian 63: 220–263.Google ScholarPubMed
Glazier, DB (1986). Congestive heart failure and congenital cardiac defects in the horse. Veterinary Update 1: 7–15.Google Scholar
Gravanis, MB and Ansari, AA (1987). Idiopathic cardiomyopathies. A review of pathologic studies and mechanisms of pathogenesis. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 111: 915–929.Google ScholarPubMed
Gunn, HM (1989). Heart weight and running ability. Journal of Anatomy 167: 225–233.Google ScholarPubMed
Hacker, DV, Moore, PF and Buyukmihci, NC (1986). Ocular angiosarcoma in the horse: morphological and immunohistochemical studies. Veterinary Pathology 23: 240–244.Google Scholar
Hadlow, WJ and Ward, JK (1980). Atresia of the right atrioventricular orifice in an Arabian foal. Veterinary Pathology 17: 622–637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanson, CM, Kline, KH and Foreman, JH (1994). Measurements of heart scores and heart weights in horses of two different morphic body types. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 108: 175–178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hargis, AM and McElwain, TF (1984). Vascular neoplasia in the skin of horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Association 184: 1121–1124.Google ScholarPubMed
Hasheck, WM, Krook, L, Kallfelz, FA and Pond, WG (1978). Vitamin D toxicity. Initial site and mode of action. Cornell Veterinarian 68: 324–364.Google Scholar
Hebert, CD, Flory, W, Seger, C and Blanchard, RE (1983). Preliminary isolation of a myodegenerative toxic principle from Cassia occidentalis. American Journal of Veterinary Research 44: 1370–1374.Google ScholarPubMed
Helman, RG and Edwards, WC (1997). Clinical features of blister beetle poisoning in equids: 70 cases (1983–1996). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 211: 1018–1021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hillyer, MH and Mair, TS (1997). Recurrent colic in the mature horse: a retrospective review of 58 cases. Equine Veterinary Journal 29: 421–424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, JR and Miller, PJ (1984). Three cases of ruptured mitral valve chordae in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 16: 125–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, PE and Howard, EB (1984). Endocardial fibroelastosis as a cause of sudden death in the horse. Equine Practice 6: 23–26.Google Scholar
Huntington, PJ, Ellis, PM, Forman, AJ and Timoney, PJC (1990). Equine viral arteritis. Australian Veterinary Journal 67: 429–431.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jiang, JP and Downing, SE (1990). Catecholamine cardiomyopathy: review and analysis of pathogenetic mechanisms. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 63: 581–591.Google ScholarPubMed
Johnson, GC, Miller, MA, Floss, JC and Turk, JR (1996). Histologic and immunohistochemical characterization of hemangiomas in the skin of young horses. Veterinary Pathology 33: 142–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karlstam, E, Ho, SY, Slokai, A, Agren, E and Michaelsson, M (1999). Anomalous aortic origin of the left coronary artery in a horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 31: 350–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keith, JC Jr (1981). Tetralogy of Fallot in a Quarter Horse foal. Veterinary Medicine Small Animal Clinic 76: 889–895.Google Scholar
King, JM, Roth, L and Haschek, WM (1982). Myocardial necrosis secondary to neural lesions in domestic animals. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 180: 144–148.Google ScholarPubMed
Kiryu, K, Nakamura, T, Kaneko, M, Oikawa, M and Yoshihara, T (1987). Cardiopathology of sudden cardiac death in the race horse. Heart and Vessels Supplement 2: 40–46.Google ScholarPubMed
Kiryu, K, Machida, N, Kashida, Y, Yoshihara, A, Amanda, A and Yamamoto, T (1999). Sudden cardiac death in horses. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 6: 921–928.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kokkonen, UM, Hackzell, M and Rasanen, LA (1995). Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide in standardbred and Finnhorse trotters during and after exercise (1995). Acta Physiologica Scandinavia 54: 51–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kokkonen, UM, Hyyppa, S and Poso, AR (1999). Plasma atrial natriuretic peptide during and after repeated exercise under heat exposure. Equine Veterinary Journal Supplement 30: 184–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kriz, NG, Hodgson, DR and Rose, RJ (2000). Prevalence and clinical importance of heart murmurs in racehorses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 216: 1441–1445.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Krook, L, Wassermann, RH, Shively, JN, Tashjian, AH Jr, Brokken, TD and Morton, JF (1975). Hypercalcemia and calcinosis in Florida horses: implication of the shrub, Cestrum diurnum, as the causative agent. Cornell Veterinarian 65: 26–26.Google ScholarPubMed
Lindahl, B, Tass, H, Siegbahn, A, Venge, P and Wallentin, L (2000). Markers of myocardial damage and inflammation in relationship to long-term mortality in unstable coronary artery disease. New England Journal of Medicine 343: 1139–1155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Littlewort, MCG (1986). The equine heart in health and disease. In: Hickman, J (editor). Equine Surgery and Medicine. London: Academic Press, pp. 1–87.Google Scholar
Lombard, CW, Scarratt, WK and Buergelt, CD (1983). Ventricular septal defects in the horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183: 562–565.Google ScholarPubMed
MacDonald, AA, Fowden, AL, Silver, M, Ousey, J and Rossdale, PD (1988). The foramen ovale of the foetal and neonatal foal. Equine Veterinary Journal 20: 255–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Machida, N, Yasuda, J, Too, K and Kudo, N (1988). A morphological study on the obliteration process of the ductus arteriosus in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 20: 249–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mao, TS, Yeo, SP and Lucke, VM (1990). Hypercalcaemia and soft tissue mineralization associated with lymphosarcoma in two horses. Veterinary Record 126: 99–101.Google Scholar
Maxie, MG and Physick-Sheard, PW (1985). Aortic–iliac thrombosis in horses. Veterinary Pathology 22: 238–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maxie, G (1991). Cardiovascular necropsy in domestic animals. Proceedings, ACVP Annual Meeting, Orlando, Florida, 1991, pp. 1–7.Google Scholar
Maxson, AD and Reef, VB (1997). Bacterial endocarditis in horses: ten cases (1984–1995). Equine Veterinary Journal 29: 394–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCraw, BM and Slocombe, JOD (1976). Strongylus vulgaris in the horse: a review. Veterinary Journal 17: 150–156.Google ScholarPubMed
McKibbe, JS and Getty, R (1969). Innervation of the heart of domesticated animals: horse. American Journal of Veterinary Research 30: 193–207.Google Scholar
Meurs, KM, Miller, MW, Hanson, C and Honnas, C (1997). Tricuspid valve atresia with main pulmonary atresia in an Arabian foal. Equine Veterinary Journal 29: 160–162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mifune, H, Richter, R and Forssmann, WG (1995). Detection of immunoreactive atrial and brain atriuretic peptides in the equine atrium. Anatomy and Embryology (Berlin) 192: 117–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, PJ and Holmes, JR (1984). Observations on structure and function of the equine mitral valve. Equine Veterinary Journal 16: 457–460.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, PJ and Holmes, JR (1985). Observations on seven cases of mitral valve insufficiency in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 17: 181–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mogg, TD and Palmer, JE (1995). Hyperlipidemia, hyperlipemia and hepatic lipidosis in American Miniature Horses: 23 cases (1990–1994). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 207: 604–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Montali, RJ, Strandberg, JD and Squire, RA (1970). A histochemical and ultrastructural study of intimal bodies of horse arterioles. Laboratory Investigation 23: 302–306.Google ScholarPubMed
Morgan, SJ, Stromberg, . Canadian, PL, Storts, RW, Sowa, BA and Lay, JC (1991). Histology and morphometry of Strongylus vulgaris-mediated equine mesenteric arteritis. Journal of Comparative Pathology 104: 89–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, KM (1982). Plant induced calcinosis: a review. Veterinary and Human Toxicology 24: 30–48.Google ScholarPubMed
Muylle, E, Vandenhende, C, Oyaert, W and Van Den Hende, C (1981). Delayed monensin sodium toxicity in horses. Equine Veterinary Journal 13: 17–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neufeld, JL (1973). Lymphosarcoma in the horse: a review. Canadian Veterinary Journal 14: 129–135.Google ScholarPubMed
Nilsfors, L, Lombard, CW, Weckner, D and Kvart, C (1991). Diagnosis of pulmonary valve endocarditis in a horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 23: 479–482.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nuytten, J, Deprez, P, Picavet, T, Van Den Henden, C and Muylle, E (1988). Heart failure in horses: hemodynamic monitoring and determination of LDH1 concentration. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 8: 214–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Brian, PJ, Landt, Y and Ladenson, JH (1997). Differential reactivity of cardiac and skeletal muscle from various species in a cardiac troponin I immunoassay. Clinical Chemistry 43: 2333–2338.Google Scholar
O'Brian, PJ, Dameron, GW, Beck, ML and Brandt, M (1998). Differential reactivity of cardiac and skeletal muscle from various species in two generations of cardiac troponin T immunoassays. Research in Veterinary Science 65: 135–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oikawa, M, Katayama, Y, Yoshihara, T, Kaneko, M and Yoshikawa, T (1993). Microscopic characteristics of uterine wall arteries in barren aged mares. Journal of Comparative Pathology 108: 411–415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ordidge, RM and Stoker, JW (1979). Death of horses after accidental feeding of monensin. Veterinary Record 104: 375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, RR, Moore, JN, Hopkins, JB and Arthur, D (1977). Dystrophic myodegeneration in adult horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 171: 343–349.Google ScholarPubMed
Pace, LW, Wirth, NR, Foss, RR and Fales, WH (1994). Endocarditis and pulmonary aspergillosis in a horse. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 6: 504–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palate, BM, Denoel, SR and Roba, JL (1995). A simple method for performing routine histopathological examination of the cardiac conduction tissue in the dog. Toxicologic Pathology 23: 56–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peet, RL, McDermott, J, Williams, JM and Maclean, AA (1981). Fungal myocarditis and nephritis in a horse. Australian Veterinary Journal 57: 439–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Physick-Sheard, PW (1985). Cardiovascular response to exercise and training in the horse. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Equine Practice 1: 383–417.Google ScholarPubMed
Platt, H (1982). Sudden and unexpected death in horses. A review of 69 cases. British Veterinary Journal 138: 417–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Platt, H and Whitwell, KE (1971). Clinical and pathological observations on generalized steatitis in foals. Journal of Comparative Pathology 81: 499–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Poonacha, KB, Donahue, JM, Giles, RC, Hong, CB, Petrites-Murphy, MB, Smith, BJ, Swerczek, TW, Tramontin, RR and Tuttle, PA (1993). Leptospirosis in equine fetuses, stillborn foals, and placentas. Veterinary Pathology 30: 362–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quiring, DP and Baker, RJ (1953). The equine heart. American Journal of Veterinary Research 14: 62–67.Google ScholarPubMed
Reef, VB (1985). Cardiovascular disease in the equine neonate. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Equine Practice 1: 117–129.Google ScholarPubMed
Reef, VB (1987). Mitral valve insufficiency associated with ruptured chordae tendineae in three horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 191: 329–331.Google Scholar
Reef, VB, Bain, FT and Spencer, PA (1998). Severe mitral regurgitation in horses: clinical, echocardiographic and pathological findings. Equine Veterinary Journal 30: 18–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reimer, JM, Reef, VB and Sommer, M (1991). Echocardiographic detection of pulmonic valve rupture in a horse with right-sided heart failure. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 198: 880–882.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reimer, JM, Marr, CM, Reef, VB and Saik, JE (1993). Aortic origin of the right pulmonary artery and patent ductus arteriosus in a pony foal with pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure. Equine Veterinary Journal 25: 466–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reppas, GP, Canfield, PJ, Hartley, WJ, Hutchins, DR and Hoffmann, KL (1996). Multiple congenital cardiac anomalies and idiopathic thoracic aortitis in a horse. Veterinary Record 138: 14–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, DJ and Nicholl, TK (1978). Tetralogy of Fallot and cranial mesenteric arteritis in a foal. Equine Veterinary Journal 10: 185–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richter, R, Magert, H, Mifune, H, Schulz-Knappe, P and Forssmann, WG (1998). Equine cardiodilatin/atrial natriuretic peptide. Primary structure and immunohistochemical localization in auricular cardiocytes. Acta Anatomica (Basel) 162: 185–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, WF and Maxie, MG (1993). The cardiovascular system. In: Jubb, KVF, Kennedy, PC and Palmer, N (editors). Pathology of Domestic Animals. 4th edn. San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 1–100Google Scholar
Rona, G (1985). Catecholamine cardiotoxicity. Journal of Molecular Cell Cardiology 1: 291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rooney, JR and Franks, WC (1964). Congenital cardiac anomalies in horses. Pathologia Veterinaria 1: 454–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rooney, JR and Robertson, JL (1996). Cardiovascular system. Equine Pathology. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 3–22.Google Scholar
Rooney, JR, Prickett, ME and Crowe, MW (1967). Aortic ring rupture in stallions. Pathologia Veterinaria 4: 268–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothenbacher, HJ and Tufts, S (1964). Coronary arteriosclerosis in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 145: 132–138.Google ScholarPubMed
Roussier, T, Sweeney, CR, Heyer, G and Hamir, AN (1990). Pleuroscopic diagnosis of disseminated haemangiosarcoma in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 196: 1639–1640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sage, AM (2002). Cardiac disease in the geriatric horse. Veterinary Clinics of North America. Equine Practice 18: 575–589.Google ScholarPubMed
Schober, KE, Kaufhold, J and Kipar, AC (2000). Mitral valve dysplasia in a foal. Equine Veterinary Journal 32: 17–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schoeb, TR and Panciera, RJ (1978). Blister beetle poisoning in horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 173: 75–77.Google ScholarPubMed
Schoeb, TR and Panciera, RJ (1979). Pathology of blister beetle (Epicauta) poisoning in horses. Veterinary Pathology 16: 18–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sleeper, MM, Durando, MM, Miller, M, Habecker, PL and Reef, VB (2001). Aortic root disease in four horses. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219: 491–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Southwood, LL, Schott, HC, Henry, CJ, Kennedy, FA, Hines, MT, Geor, RJ and Hassel, DM (2000). Disseminated hemangiosarcoma in the horse: 35 cases. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 14: 105–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spiro, I (2002). Hematuria and a complex congenital heart defect in a newborn foal. Canadian Veterinary Journal 43: 375–377.Google Scholar
Steyn, PF, Holland, P and Hoffman, J (1989). The angiocardiographic diagnosis of a persistent truncus arteriosus in a foal. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 60: 106–108.Google Scholar
Sweeney, CR and Gillett, DM (1989). Thoracic neoplasia in equids: 35 cases (1967–1987). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 195: 374–377.Google ScholarPubMed
Taylor, FGR, Wotton, PR, Hillyer, MH, Barr, FJ and Lucke, VM (1991). Atrial septal defect and atrial fibrillation in a foal. Veterinary Record 28: 80–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Traavers, CW and van den Berg, JS (1995).. Pseudomonas sp. associated with vegetative endocarditis in two horses. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 66: 172–176.Google Scholar
Turk, JR and Root, CR (1983). Necropsy of the canine heart: a simple technique for quantifying ventricular hypertrophy and valvular alterations. Compendium of Continuing Education 5: 905–910.Google Scholar
van der Linde-Sipman, JS, Kroneman, J, Meulemaar, H and Voss, JH (1985). Necrosis and rupture of the aorta and pulmonary trunk in four horses. Veterinary Pathology 22: 51–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Vleet, JF and Ferrans, VJ (1986). Myocardial diseases of animals. American Journal of Pathology 124: 98–178.Google ScholarPubMed
Vitums, A, Grant, BD, Stone, EC and Spencer, GR (1973). Transposition of the aorta and atresia of the pulmonary trunk in a horse. Cornell Veterinarian 63: 41–57.Google ScholarPubMed
Weldon, AD, Step, DL and Moise, NS (1992). Lymphosarcoma with myocardial infiltration in a mare. Veterinary Medicine 87: 595–598.Google Scholar
Williams, RC (1987). Immunofluorescence studies of cardiac valves in infective endocarditis. Archives of Internal Medicine 145: 297–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, DV and Derksen,, FJ (2000). Concentration of cardiac troponin I in a horse with a ruptured aortic regurgitation jet lesion and ventricular tachycardia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 217: 231–235.Google Scholar
Worth, LT and Reef, VB (1998). Pericarditis in horses: 18 cases (1986–1995). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 212: 248–253.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, AI (1972). Verminous arteritis as a cause of colic in the horse. Equine Veterinary Journal 4: 169–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zamora, CS (1985). Common ventricle with separate pulmonary outflow chamber in a horse. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 186: 1210–1213.Google ScholarPubMed