Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-31T09:47:45.918Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Biology and epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in man and animals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 February 2007

Dolores E. Hill ,
Sreekumar Chirukandoth  and
J. P. Dubey
Dolores E. Hill*
Affiliation:
Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture Building 1044, BARC-East, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
Sreekumar Chirukandoth
Affiliation:
Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture Building 1044, BARC-East, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
J. P. Dubey
Affiliation:
Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Animal and Natural Resources Institute, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture Building 1044, BARC-East, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
*
*Email: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is a coccidian parasite which utilizes felids as definitive hosts, and which has an unusually wide intermediate host range. The parasite was initially described by Nicolle and Manceaux in 1908 from the rodent, Ctenodactylus gundi. Infection with T. gondii is one of the most common parasitic infections of man and other warm-blooded animals. It has been found worldwide from Alaska to Australia. Nearly one-third of humanity has been exposed to this parasite; serologic surveys indicate that T. gondii infections are common in wild carnivores, including pigs, bears, felids, fox, raccoons, and skunks. Clinical and subclinical toxoplasmosis has been reported from wild cervids, ungulates, marsupials, monkeys, and marine mammals. Southern sea otter populations have been severely impacted by Toxoplasma infections.

Keywords

toxoplasmaprotozoantissue cystcoccidianfood borne parasite
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Health Research Reviews , Volume 6 , Issue 1 , June 2005 , pp. 41 - 61
Copyright
Copyright © CAB International 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Akuzawa, M, Mochizuki, M and Yasuda, N (1987). Hematological and parasitological study of the Iriomote cat (Prionaliurus iriomotensis). Canadian Journal of Zoology 65: 946–949.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Altmann, D and Schüppel, KF (1988). Ein Beitrag zur Therapie und Pathologie der Toxoplasmose bei Bennettkanguruhs. Verhandlungsbericht des 30. In: Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere, 11–15 Mai 1988, Sofia, Bulgaria, pp 407–411.Google Scholar
Andersson, P, Garry-Andersson, AS (1963). Eläinten toksoplasmoosista suomessa. FinskVeterinartidskrift 69: 159–166.Google Scholar
Antsaklis, A, Daskalakis, G, Papantoniou, N, Mentis, A and Michalas, S (2002). Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. Prenatal Diagnosis 22: 1107–1111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aramini, JJ, Stephen, C and Dubey, JP (1998). Toxoplasma gondii in Vancouver Island cougars (Felis concolor vancouverensis): serology and oocyst shedding. Journal of Parasitology 84: 438–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aramini, JJ, Stephen, C, Dubey, JP, Engelstoft, C, Schwantje, H and Ribble, CS (1999). Potential contamination of drinking water with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Epidemiology and Infection 122: 305–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arkush, KD, Miller, MA, Leutenegger, CM, Gardner, IA, Packham, AE, Heckeroth, AR, Tenter, AM, Barr, BC and Conrad, PA (2003). Molecular and bioassay-based detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocyst uptake by mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). International Journal of Parasitology 33: 1087–1097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashton, N (1979). Ocular toxoplasmosis in wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). American Journal of Ophthalmology 88: 322–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aspinall, TV, Marlee, D, Hyde, JE and Sims, PF (2002). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in commercial meat products as monitored by polymerase chain reaction–food for thought. International Journal for Parasitology 32: 1193–1199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attwood, HD and Woolley, PA (1970). Toxoplasmosis in dasyurid marsupials. Pathology 2: 77–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Attwood, HD, Woolley, PA and Rickard, MD (1975). Toxoplasmosis in dasyurid marsupials. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 11: 543–551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bahia-Oliveira, LMG, Wilken de Abreu, AM, Azevedo-Silva, J, Oréfice, F (2001). Toxoplasmosis in southeastern Brazil: an alarming situation of highly endemic acquired and congenital infection. International Journal for Parasitology 31: 133–136.Google Scholar
Bell, A, Isaac-Renton, J, King, A, Martinez, L, Roscoe, D, Werker, D, Eng, S, Johnstone, T, Stanwick, R, Bowie, WR, Marion, S, Stephen, C, Burnett, A, Cadham, J, Jagdis, F, MacLeod, P, Barnard, K, Millar, J, Peck, S and Hull, J (1995). Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water–British Columbia Canada Communicable Disease Report 21–18 161–163.Google Scholar
Benenson, MW, Takafuji, ET, Lemon, SM, Greenup, RL and Sulzer, AJ (1982). Oocyst-transmitted toxoplasmosis associated with ingestion of contaminated water. New England Journal of Medicine 307: 666–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bigalke, RD, Tustin, RC, Du Pleissis, JL, Basson, PA and McCully, RM (1966). The isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from ferrets in South Africa. Journal of the South African Veterinary Medical Association 37: 243–247.Google Scholar
Boorman, GA, Kollias, GV and Taylor, RF (1977). An outbreak of toxoplasmosis in wallaroos (Macropus robustus) in a California zoo. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 13: 64–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bourne, DC (1997). Disease and mortality in Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus) at Whipsnade Wild Animal Park, with special reference to toxoplasmosos. PhD Thesis. London: University of London, 280 pp.Google Scholar
Bowie, WR, King, AS, Werker, DH, Isaac-Renton, JL, Bell, A, Eng, SB and Marion, SA (1997). Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking Water. Lancet 350: 173–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brillhart, DB, Fox, LB, Dubey, JP and Upton, SJ (1994). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in wild mammals in Kansas. Journal of the Helminthological Society of Washington 61: 117–121.Google Scholar
Briscoe, N, Humphreys, JG and Dubey, JP (1993). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infections in Pennsylvania black bears, Ursus americanus. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 29: 599–601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bulmer, WS (1971). Toxoplasmosis in captive Saiga antelope. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 7: 310–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgisser, H (1960). Toxoplasmose chez le chevreuil. Pathologia et Microbiologia 23: 415–417.Google Scholar
Burnett, AJ, Shortt, SG, Isaac-Renton, J, King, A, Werker, D and Bowie, WR (1998). Multiple cases of acquired toxoplasmosis retinitis presenting in an outbreak. Ophthalmology 105: 1032–1037.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burridge, MJ, Bigler, WJ, Forrester, DJ and Hennemann, JM (1979). Serologic survey or Toxoplasma gondii in wild animals in Florida. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 175: 964–967.Google ScholarPubMed
Canfield, PJ, Hartley, WJ and Dubey, JP (1990). Lesions of toxoplasmosis in Australian marsupials. Journal of Comparative Pathology 103: 159–167.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, J (1974). Case report: toxoplasmosis in cheetahs. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Proceedings 225: 225–227.Google Scholar
Chan, KF, Le Tran, H, Kanenaka, RY and Kathariou, S (2001). Survival of clinical and poultry-derived isolates of Campylobacter jejuni at a low temperature (4 degrees C). Applied Environmental Microbiology 67: 4186–4191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chirgwin, K, Hafner, R, Leport, C, Remington, J, Andersen, J, Bosler, EM, Roque, C, Rajicic, N, McAuliffe, V, Morlat, P, Jayaweera, DT, Vilde, JL and Luft, BJ (2002). Randomized phase II trial of atovaquone with pyrimethamine or sulfadiazine for treatment of toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: ACTG 237/ANRS 039 study. Clinical Infectious Diseases 34: 1243–1250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, W-Y, Nam, HW, Kwak, NH, Huh, W, Kim, YR, Kang, MW, Cho, SY and Dubey, JP (1997). Foodborne outbreaks of human toxoplasmosis. Journal of Infectious Diseases 175: 1280–1282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chomel, BB, Zarnke, RL, Kasten, RW, Kass, PH and Mendes, E (1995). Serologic survey of Toxoplasma gondii in grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and black bears (Ursus americanus) from Alaska 1988 to 1991. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 472–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christiansen, M and Siim, JC (1951). Toxoplasmosis in hares in Denmark. Serological identity of human and hare strains of Toxoplasma. Lancet 1: 1201–1203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, RK, Jessup, DA, Hird, DW, Ruppanner, R and Meyer, ME (1983). Serologic survey of California wild hogs for antibodies against selected zoonotic disease agents. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 183: 1248–1251.Google ScholarPubMed
Cole, RA, Lindsay, DS, Howe, DK, Roderick, CL, Dubey, JP, Thomas, NJ and Baeten, LA (2000). Biological and molecular characterizations of Toxoplasma gondii strains obtained from southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). Journal of Parasitology 86: 526–530.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, GH (1981). Studies in Sarcocystis species VII Sarcocystis and Toxoplasma in red deer (Cervus elaphus). New Zealand Veterinary Journal 29: 126–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Contini, C, Cultrera, R, Seraceni, S, Segala, D, Romani, R, Fainardi, E, Cinque, P, Lazzarin, A and Delia, S (2002). The role of stage specific oligonucleotide primers in providing effective laboratory support for the molecular diagnosis of reactivated Toxoplasma gondii encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Journal of Medical Microbiology 51: 879–890.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, AJC, Gilbert, RE, Buffolano, W, Zufferey, J, Petersen, E, Jenum, PA, Foulon, W, Semprini, AE and Dunn, DT (2000). Sources of Toxoplasma infection in pregnant women: European multicentre case control study. British Medical Journal 321: 142–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coutelen, F (1932). Existence d'une encephalite toxoplasmique spontanée chez les wombats. Un toxoplasme nouveau, Toxoplasma wenyoni n. sp. parasite de Phascolomys mitchelli (Australie). Comptes Rendes des Séances de la Societé de Biologie 110: 1245–1247.Google Scholar
Cox, JC, Edmonds, JW and Shepherd, RC (1981). Toxoplasmosis in the wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus in Victoria, Australia with suggested mechanisms for dissemination of oocysts. Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge 87: 331–337.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cruickshank, JJ, Haines, DM, Palmer, NC and Staubin, DJ (1990). Cysts of a Toxoplasma-like organisms in an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin. Canadian Veterinary Journal 31: 213–215.Google Scholar
Cunningham, AA, Buxton, D and Thomson, KM (1992). An epidemic of toxoplasmosis in a captive colony of squirrel-monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Journal of Comparative Pathology 107: 207–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Desmonts, G and Couvreur, J (1974). Congenital toxoplasmosis. A prospective study of 378 pregnancies. New England Journal of Medicine 290: 1110–1116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diderrich, V, New, JC, Noblet, GP and Patton, S (1996). Serologic survey of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in free-ranging wild hogs (Sus scrofa) from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and from sites in South Carolina Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 43 122S.Google ScholarPubMed
Dieters, RW and Nielsen, SW (1978). Toxoplasmosis, distemper, and herpesvirus infection in a skunk (Mephitis mephitis). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 14: 132–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dietz, HH, Henriksen, P, Lebech, M and Henriksen, SA (1993). Experimental infection with Toxoplasma gondii in farmed mink (Mustela vison S.). Veterinary Parasitology 47: 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietz, HH, Henriksen, P, Bille-Hansen, V and Henriksen, SA (1997). Toxoplasmosis in a colony of New World monkeys. Veterinary Parasitology 68: 299–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobos-Kovács, M, Meszaros, J, Pellerdy, L and Balsai, A (1974a). Toxoplasmose bei Kanguruhs (Thylogale eugenii) verursacht durch Toxoplasma-Oozysten enthaltendes Futter. Parasitologia Hungarica 7: 85–90.Google Scholar
Dobos-Kovács, M, Meszaros, J, Pellerdy, L and Balsai, A (1974b). Studies on the source of Toxoplasma infection in captive kangaroos. Acta Veterinaria Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 24: 293–301.Google ScholarPubMed
Domingo, M, Visa, J, Pumarola, M, Marco, AJ, Ferrer, K, Rabanal, R and Kennedy, S (1992). Pathologic and immunocytochemical studies of morbillivirus infection in striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba). Veterinary Pathology 29: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (1982). Isolation of encysted Toxoplasma gondii from muscles of mule deer in Montana Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 181 1535.Google ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (1983). Toxoplasma gondii infection in rodents and insectivores from Montana. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 19: 149–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (1985). Serologic prevalence of toxoplasmosis in cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, bison, and elk in Montana. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 186: 969–970.Google ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (1986). A review of toxoplasmosis in pigs. Veterinary Parasitology 19: 181–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (1988). Refinement of pepsin digestion method for isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from infected tissues. Veterinary Parasitology 74: 75–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP (1996). Infectivity and pathogenicity of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts for cats. Journal of Parasitology 82: 957–961.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (2001). Oocyst shedding by cats fed isolated bradyzoites and comparison of infectivity of bradyzoites of the VEG strain Toxoplasma gondii to cats and mice. Journal of Parasitology 87: 215–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (2002a). Tachyzoite-induced life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii in cats. Journal of Parasitology 88: 713–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP (2002b). A review of toxoplasmosis in wild birds. Veterinary Parasitology 106: 121–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP and Beattie, CP (1988). Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Man. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Dubey, JP and Frenkel, JK (1972). Cyst-induced toxoplasmosis in cats. Journal of Protozoology 19: 155–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP and Frenkel, JK (1976). Feline toxoplasmosis from acutely infected mice and the development of Toxoplasma cysts. Journal of Protozoology 23: 537–546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP and Frenkel, JK (1998). Toxoplasmosis of rats: a review, with considerations of their value as an animal model and their possible role in epidemiology. Veterinary Parasitology 77: 1–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP and Lin, TL (1994). Acute toxoplasmosis in a gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Veterinary Parasitology 51: 321–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP and Odening, K (2001). Parasitic Diseases of Wild Mammals. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.Google Scholar
Dubey, JP and Thayer, DW (1994). Killing of different strains of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts by irradiatin under defined conditions. Journal of Parasitology 80: 764–767.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Thorne, ET and Williams, ES (1982). Induced toxoplasmosis in pronghorns and mule deer. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 181: 1263–1267.Google ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Quinn, WJ and Weinandy, D (1987). Fatal neonatal toxoplasmosis in a bobcat (Lynx rufus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 23: 324–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Gendron-Fitzpatrick, AP, Lenhard, AL and Bowman, D (1988a). Fatal toxoplasmosis and enteroepithelial stages of Toxoplasma gondii in a Pallas cat (Felis manul). Journal of Protozoology 35: 528–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Ott-Joslin, J, Torgerson, RW, Topper, MJ and Sundberg, JP (1988b). Toxoplasmosis in black-faced kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus melanops). Veterinary Parasitology 30: 97–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Hamir, AN and Rupprecht, CE (1990a). Acute disseminated toxoplasmosis in a red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26: 286–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Kotula, AW, Sharar, AK, Andrews, CD and Lindsay, DS (1990b). Effect of high temperature on infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts in pork. Journal of Parasitology 76: 201–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Hedstrom, D, Machado, CR and Osborn, KG (1991). Disseminated toxoplasmosis in a captive koala (Phascolarctos cinereus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 22: 348–350.Google Scholar
Dubey, JP, Brown, CA, Carpenter, JL and Moore, JJ (1992a). Fatal toxoplasmosis in domestic rabbits in the USA. Veterinary Parasitology 44: 305–309.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Hamir, AN, Hanlon, CA and Rupprecht, CE (1992b). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in raccoons. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 200: 534–536.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Hamir, AN, Shen, SK, Thulliez, P and Rupprecht, CE (1993). Experimental Toxoplasma gondii infection in raccoons (Procyon lotor). Journal of Parasitology 79: 548–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Briscoe, N, Gamble, R, Zarlenga, D, Humphreys, JG and Thulliez, P (1994). Characterization of Toxoplasma and Trichinella isolates from muscles of black bears in Pennsylvania. American Journal of Veterinary Research 55: 815–819.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Humphreys, JG and Thulliez, P (1995a). Prevalence of viable Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts and antibodies to T. gondii by various serologic tests in black bears (Ursus americanus) from Pennsylvania. Journal of Parasitology 81: 109–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Thulliez, P and Powell, EC (1995b). Toxoplasma gondii in Iowa sows: comparison of antibody titers to isolation of T. gondii by bioassays in mice and cats. Journal of Parasitology 81: 48–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Weigel, RM, Siegel, AM, Thulliez, P, Kitron, UD, Mitchell, MA, Mannelli, A, Mateus-Pinilla, NE, Shen, SK and Kwok, OC (1995c). Sources and reservoirs of Toxoplasma gondii infection on 47 swine farms in Illinois. Journal of Parasitology 81: 723–729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Rollor, EA, Smith, K, Kwok, OC and Thulliez, P (1997). Low seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in feral pigs from a remote island lacking cats. Journal of Parasitology 3: 839–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Storandt, ST, Kwok, OC, Thulliez, P and Kazacos, KR (1999). Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in naturally exposed wild coyotes, red foxes, and gray foxes and serologic diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in red foxes fed T. gondii oocysts and tissue cysts. Journal of Parasitology 85: 240–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Graham, DH, Blackston, CR, Lehmann, T, Gennari, SM, Ragozo, AM, Nishi, SM, Shen, SK, Kwok, OC, Hill, DE and Thulliez, P (2002a). Biological and genetic characterisation of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens (Gallus domesticus) from Sao Paulo, Brazil: unexpected findings. International Journal for Parasitology 32: 99–105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Lewis, B, Beam, K and Abbitt, B (2002b). Transplacental toxoplasmosis in a reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) fetus. Veterinary Parasitology 110: 131–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubey, JP, Gamble, HR, Hill, D, Sreekumar, C, Romand, S and Thuilliez, P (2002c). High prevalence of viable Toxoplasma gondii infection in market weight pigs from a farm in Massachusetts. Journal of Parasitology 88: 1234–1238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubey, JP, Tocidlowski, ME, Abbitt, B and Llizo, SY (2002c). Acute visceral toxoplasmosis in captive dik-dik (Madoqua guentheri smithi). Journal of Parasitology 88: 638–641.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edelhofer, R, Prosl, H and Kutzer, E (1996). Zur Trichinellose und Toxoplasmose der Wildschweine in Ostosterreich. Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift 83: 225–229.Google Scholar
Entzeroth, R, Piekarski, G and Scholtyseck, E (1981). Fine structural study of a Toxoplasma strain from the roe deer. Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde 66: 109–112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foulon, W, Naessens, A and Derde, MP (1994). Evaluation of the possibilities for preventing congenital toxoplasmosis. American Journal Perinatology 11: 57–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foulon, W, Naessens, A, Ho-Yen, D (2000). Prevention of congenital toxoplasmosis. Journal of Perinatal Medicine 28: 337–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frenkel, JK, Dubey, JP and Miller, NL (1970). Toxoplasma gondii in cats: fecal stages identified as coccidian oocysts. Science 167: 893–896.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gamble, HR, Brady, RC and Dubey, JP (1999). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic pigs in the New England states. Veterinary Parasitology 82: 129–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garner, MM, Barr, BC, Packham, AE, Marsh, AE, Burek-Huntington, KA, Wilson, RK and Dubey, JP (1997). Fatal hepatic sarcocystosis in two polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Journal of Parasitology 83: 523–526.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glasner, PD, Silveira, C, Kruszon-Moran, D, Martins, MC, Burnier, M, Jr Silveira, S, Camargo, ME, Nussenblatt, RB, Kaslow, RA, Belfort, R Jr (1992). An unusually high prevalence of ocular toxoplasmosis in southern Brazil. American Journal of Ophthalmology 114: 136–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gorham, JR and Farrell, K (1955). Diseases and parasites of chinchillas. In: Proclamations of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 92nd Annual Meeting, 15–18 August, Minneapolis, MN, pp 228–234.Google Scholar
Green, LE and Morgan, KL (1991). Toxoplasma abortion in a guinea pig. Veterinary Record 129: 266–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grünberg, W (1959). Toxoplasmos beim Bennett-Känguruh (Makropus bennetti Gould) und einem Klippschilefer (Hyrax syriacus Schreb). Wiener Tierärztliche Monatsschrift 46: 586–593.Google Scholar
Guerina, NG, Hsu, HW, Meissner, HC, Maguire, JH, Lynfield, R, Stechenberg, B, Abroms, I, Pasternack, MS, Hoff, R and Eaton, RB (1994). Neonatal serologic screening and early treatment for congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection. The New England Regional Toxoplasma Working Group. New England Journal of Medicine 330: 1858–1863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gustafsson, K and Uggla, A (1994). Serologic survey for Toxoplasma gondii infection in the brown hare (Lepus europaeus P.) in Sweden. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 30: 201–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gustafsson, K, Uggla, A, Svensson, T and Sjoland, L (1988). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in liver tissue sections from brown hares (Lepus europaeus P.) and mountain hares (Lepus timidus L.) using the peroxidase anti-peroxidase (PAP) technique as a complement to conventional histopathology. Journal of Veterinary Medicine B. 35: 402–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hamerton, AE (1932). Report on the deaths occuring in the Society's Gardens during the year 1931 Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 613–638.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamerton, AE (1933). Report on the deaths occuring in the Society's Gardens during the year 1932. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 451–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamerton, AE (1934). Toxoplasma wenyoni in the brain of a Mitchell's wombat (Phasocolom mitchell) Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine 28 2.Google Scholar
Harcourt, RA (1967). Toxoplasmosis in rabbits. Veterinary Record 81: 191–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartley, WJ, Dubey, JP and Spielman, DS (1990). Fatal toxoplasmosis in Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus). Journal of Parasitology 76: 271–272.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helmboldt, CF and Jungherr, EL (1955). Distemper complex in wild carnivores simulating rabies. American Journal of Veterinary Research 16: 463–469.Google ScholarPubMed
Henriksen, P, Dietz, HH, Uttenthal, A and Hansen, M (1994). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Danish farmed mink (Mustela vison S.). Veterinary Parasitology 53: 1–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hilgenfeld, M (1965). Toxoplasmose bei Zootieren. Zoologische Garten (Berlin) 30: 262–270.Google Scholar
Hirato, K (1939). Notes on two cases of Toxoplasma observed among raccoon-dogs in the vicinity of Sapporo. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Science 1: 544–552.Google Scholar
Holshuh, HJ, Sherrod, AE, Taylor, CR, Andrews, BF and Howard, EB (1985). Toxoplasmosis in a feral northern fur seal. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 187: 1229–1230.Google Scholar
Humphreys, JG, Stewart, RL and Dubey, JP (1995). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in sera of hunter-killed white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. American Journal of Veterinary Research 56: 172–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Inskeep, W, Gardiner, CH, Harris, RK, Dubey, JP and Goldston, RT (1990). Toxoplasmosis in Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 26: 377–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ippen, R, Jíra, J and Blazek, K (1981). Toxoplasmose als Todesursache bei Saiga-Antilopen (Saiga tatarica). Verhandlungsbericht des 23. In: Internationaler Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zootiere, 24–28 Juni 1987, Halle, Germany, pp 185–191.Google Scholar
Isaac-Renton, J, Bowie, WR, King, A, Irwin, GS, Ong, CS, Fung, CP, Shokeir, MO and Dubey, JP (1998). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64: 2278–2280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobs, L, Stanley, AM and Herman, CM (1962). Prevalence of Toxoplasma antibodies in rabbits, squirrels, and raccoons collected in and near the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Journal of Parasitology 48 550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jakob-Hoff, RM and Dunsmore, JD (1983). Epidemiological aspects of toxoplasmosis in southern Western Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal 60: 217–218.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jardine, JE and Dubey, JP (2002). Congenital toxoplasmosis in an Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus). Journal of Parasitology 88: 197–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jauregui, LH, Higgins, JA, Zarlenga, DS, Dubey, JP and Lunney, JK (2001). Development of a real-time PCR assay for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii in pig and mouse tissues. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39: 2065–2071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jensen, JM, Patton, S, Wright, BG and Loeffler, DG (1985). Toxoplasmosis in marsupials in a zoological collection. Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 16: 129–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, AM, Roberts, H and Munday, BL (1988). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibody in wild macropods. Australian Veterinary Journal 65: 199–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, AM, Roberts, H, Statham, P and Munday, BL (1989). Serodiagnosis of acute toxoplasmosis in macropods. Veterinary Parasitology 34: 25–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordan, GW, Theis, J, Fuller, CM and Hoeprich, PD (1975). Bear meat trichinosis with a concomitant serologic response to Toxoplasma gondii. American Journal of Medical Sciences 269: 251–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joseph, P, Calderon, MM, Gilman, RH, Quispe, ML, Cok, J, Ticona, E, Chavez, V, Jimenez, JA, Chang, MC, Lopez, MJ and Evans, CA (2002). Optimization and evaluation of a PCR assay for detecting toxoplasmic encephalitis in patients with AIDS. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40: 4499–4503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Junge, RE, Fischer, JR and Dubey, JP (1992). Fatal disseminated toxoplasmosis in a captive Cuvier's gazelle (Gazella cuvieri). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 23: 342–345.Google Scholar
Keagy, HF (1949). Toxoplasma in the chinchilla. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 114 15.Google Scholar
Kiss, G and Graf, Z (1989). Perinitale toxoplasmose bei einum eisbären (Thalarctos maritimus). In: Internationalen Symposium über die Ekrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere, 24–28 Mai 1989, Dortmund, Germany, pp 433–435.Google Scholar
Kiupel, H, Ritscher, D and Fricke, G (1987). Toxoplasmose bei jungen kodiakbaren (Ursus arctos middendorffi). Verhandlungsbericht des 29. In: Internationalen Symposium über die Ekrankungen der Zootiere, 20–24 Mai 1987, Cardiff, UK, pp 335–340.Google Scholar
Kocan, AA, Barron, SJ, Fox, JC and Franzmann, AW (1986). Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in moose (Alces alces L.) from Alaska Journal of Wildlife Diseases 22 432.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kotula, AW, Dubey, JP, Sharar, AK, Andrew, CD, Shen, SK and Lindsay, DS (1991). Effect of freezing on infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii tissue cysts in pork. Journal of Food Protection 54: 687–690.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kronberger, H and Schüppel, KF (1976). Verhandlungsbericht des XVIII. In: Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zootiere, 16–20 Juni 1976, Innsbruck, Austria, pp 27–30.Google Scholar
Labelle, P, Dubey, JP, Mikaelian, I, Blanchette, N, Lafond, R, St-Onge, S and Martineau, D (2001). Seroprevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in lynx (Lynx canadensis) and bobcats (Lynx rufus) from Quebec, Canada. Journal of Parasitology 87: 1194–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambourn, DM, Jeffries, SJ and Dubey, JP (2001). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in southern Puget Sound, Washington. Journal of Parasitology 87: 1196–1197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leland, MM, Hubbard, GB and Dubey, JP (1992). Clinical toxoplasmosis in domestic rabbits. Lab Animal Science 42: 318–319.Google ScholarPubMed
Lenghaus, C, Obendorf, DL and Wright, FH (1990). Veterinary aspects of Perameles gunnii biology with special references to species conservation. In: Clark, TW and Seebeck, JH (eds) Management and Conservation of Small Populations. Chicago: Chicago Zoological Society, pp 89–108.Google Scholar
Lewis, JS, Khoury, H, Storch, GA and DiPersio, J (2002). PCR for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Expert Reviews in Molecular Diagnostics 2: 616–624.Google ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, DS, Blagburn, BL, Dubey, JP and Mason, WH (1991). Prevalence and isolation of Toxoplasma gondii from white-tailed deer in Alabama. The Journal of Parasitology 77: 62–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, DS, Kelly, EJ, McKown, RD, Stein, FJ, Plozer, J, Herman, J, Blagburn, BL and Dubey, JP (1996). Prevalence of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in coyotes (Canis latrans) and experimental infections of coyotes with Neospora caninum. The Journal of Parasitology 82: 657–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindsay, DS, Thomas, NJ, Rosypal, AC and Dubey, JP (2001a). Dual Sarcocystis neurona and Toxoplasma gondii infection in a Northern sea otter from Washington state, USA. Veterinary Parasitology 97: 319–327.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, DS, Phelps, KK, Smith, SA, Flick, G, Sumner, SS and Dubey, JP (2001b). Removal of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts from sea water by eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 48 S197–S198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lindsay, DS, Collins, MV, Mitchell, SM, Wetch, CN, Rosypal, AC, Flick, GJ, Zajac, AM, Lindquist, A and Dubey, JP (2004). Survival of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica). Journal of Parasitology 90 (5): 1054–1057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lopez, A, Dietz, VJ, Wilson, M, Navin, TR and Jones, JL (2000). Preventing congenital toxoplasmosis. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 49: 59–75.Google ScholarPubMed
Luft, BJ and Remington, JS (1992). Toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS. Clinical Infectious Disease 15: 211–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, MJ, Obendorf, DL, Statham, P and Reddacliff, GL (1993). An evaluation of a live Toxoplasma gondii vaccine in tammar wallabies (Macropus eugenii). Australian Veterinary Journal 70: 352–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandelli, G, Cerioli, A, Hahn, EEA and Strozzi, F (1966). Osservazioni anatomo-istologiche e parassitologiche su di un episodio di toxoplasmosi nel canguro di Bennett (Macropis Bennetti Gould). Bollettino del Istituto Sieroterapico Milanese 45: 177–192.Google Scholar
Marchiondo, AA, Duszynski, DW and Maupin, GO (1976). Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in wild and domestic animals of New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 12: 226–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markham, FS (1937). Spontaneous Toxoplasma encephalitis in the guinea pig. American Journal of Hygiene 26: 193–196.Google Scholar
Measures, LN, Dubey, JP, Labelle, P and Martineau, D (2004). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Canadian pinnipeds. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 40: 294–300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medway, W, Skand, DL and Sarver, CF (1989). Neurologic signs in American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) infected with Baylisascaris and Toxoplasma. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20: 207–211.Google Scholar
Migaki, G, Allen, JF and Casey, HW (1977). Toxoplasmosis in a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus). American Journal of Veterinary Research 38: 135–136.Google Scholar
Migaki, G, Sawa, TR and Dubey, JP (1990). Fatal disseminated toxoplasmosis in a spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). Veterinary Pathology 27: 463–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikaelian, I, Boisclair, J, Dubey, JP, Kennedy, S and Martineau, D (2000). Toxoplasmosis in beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) from the St. Lawrence estuary: two case reports and a serological survey. Journal of Comparative Pathology 122: 73–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, MA, Ehlers, K, Dubey, JP van Steenbergh, K (1992). Outbreak of toxoplasmosis in wallabies on an exotic animal farm. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 4: 480–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, MA, Gardner, IA, Kreuder, C, Paradies, DM, Worcester, KR, Jessup, DA, Dodd, E, Harris, MD, Ames, JA, Packham, AE and Conrad, PA (2002). Coastal freshwater runoff is a risk factor for Toxoplasma gondii infection of southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). International Journal for Parasitology 32: 997–1006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, MA, Grigg, ME, Kreuder, C, James, ER, Melli, AC, Crosbie, PR, Jessup, DA, Boothroyd, JC, Brownstein, D and Conrad, PA (2004). An unusual genotype of Toxoplasma gondii is common in California sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) and is a cause of mortality. International Journal of Parasitology 34: 275–284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, MA, Hungerford, LL, Nixon, CM, Esker, TL, Sullivan, JB, Koerkenmeier, JB and Dubey, JP (1999). Serologic survey for selected infectious disease agents in raccoons from Illinois. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 35: 347–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Møller, T (1952). Toxoplasmosis Vulpis vulpis. Acta Pathologica Microbiologica Scandinavica 93 (suppl.), 308–320.Google ScholarPubMed
Møller, T (1958). Toxoplasmosis cuniculi. Verificering af diagnosen, patologisk-anatomiske og serologiske undersogelser. Nordisk Veterinærmedicin 10: 1–56.Google Scholar
Møller, TNielsen, SW (1964). Toxoplasmosis in distemper-susceptible carnivora. Pathologia Veterinaria 1: 189–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Momberg-Jørgensen, HC (1956). Toxoplasmose i forbindelse med hvalpesyge hos minken. Nordisk Veterinaermedicin 8: 239–242.Google Scholar
Neto, EC, Anele, E, Rubim, R, Brites, A, Schulte, J, Becker, D and Tuuminen, T (2000). High prevalence of congenital toxoplasmosis in Brazil estimated in a 3-year prospective neonatal screening study. International Journal of Epidemiology 29: 941–947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nobel, TA, Klopfer, U and Neuman, F (1969). Toxoplasmosis in wild animals in Israel. Journal of Comparative Pathology 79: 127–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nogami, S, Tabata, A, Moritomo, T and Hayashi, Y (1999). Prevalence of anti- Toxoplasma gondii antibody in wild boar, Sus scrofa riukiuanus, on Iriomote Island, Japan. Veterinary Research Communications 23: 211–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nutter, FB, Levine, JF, Stoskopf, MK, Gamble, HR and Dubey, JP (1998). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spiralis in North Carolina black bears (Ursus americanus). Journal of Parasitology 84: 1048–1050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obendorf, DL and Munday, BL (1983). Toxoplasmosis in wild Tasmanian wallabies Australian Veterinary Journal 60 62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obendorf, DL and Munday, BL (1990). Toxoplasmosis in wild Eastern Barred Bandicoots, Perameles gunnii. In: Seebeck, JH, Brown, PR, Wallis, RL and Kemper, CM (eds) Bandicoots and Bilbies; Australian Mammal Society Symposium. Sydney, Australia: Surrey Beatty & Sons, pp 193–197.Google Scholar
Obendorf, DL, Statham, P and Driessen, M (1996). Detection of agglutinating antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in sera from free-ranging eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 32: 623–626.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ocholi, RA, Kalejaiye, JO and Okewole, PA (1989). Acute disseminated toxoplasmosis in two captive lions (Panthera leo) in Nigeria. Veterinary Record 124: 515–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oksanen, A, Gustafsson, K Lundén A Dubey, JP, Thulliez, P and Uggla, A (1996). Experimental Toxoplasma gondii infection leading to fatal enteritis in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Journal of Parasitology 82: 843–845.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olubayo, RO and Karstad, LH (1981). Fatal toxoplasmosis in a tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax arboreus). Bulletin of Animal Health and Production in Africa 29: 263–264.Google Scholar
Patton, S, Johnson, SL, Loeffler, DG, Wright, BG and Jensen, JM (1986). Epizootic of toxoplasmosis in kangaroos, wallabies, and potaroos: possible transmission via domestic cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 189: 1166–1169.Google ScholarPubMed
Phillips, P (1986). Toxoplasmosis in yellow footed rock wallabies, Veterinary Pathology Report. Australian Registry Veterinary Pathology 11: 211–216.Google Scholar
Pridham, TJ (1961). An outbreak of toxoplasmosis in ranch mink. Canadian Journal of Public Health 52: 389–393.Google ScholarPubMed
Pridham, TJ and Belcher, J (1958). Toxoplasmosis in mink. Canadian Journal of Comparative Medicine 22: 99–106.Google ScholarPubMed
Ratcliffe, HL and Worth, CB (1951). Toxoplasmosis of captive wild birds and mammals. American Journal of Pathology 27: 655–667.Google ScholarPubMed
Reddacliff, GL, Hartley, WJ, Dubey, JP and Cooper, DW (1993a). Pathology of experimentally-induced, acute toxoplasmosis in macropods. Australian Veterinary Journal 70: 4–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reddacliff, GL, Parker, SJ, Dubey, JP, Nicholls, PJ, Johnson, AM and Cooper, DW (1993b). An attempt to prevent acute toxoplasmosis in macropods by vaccination with Hammondia hammondi. Australian Veterinary Journal 70: 33–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Remington, JS, McLeod, R, Thulliez, P and Desmonts, G (2001). Toxoplasmosis. In: Remington,, JS and Klein,, JO (eds) Infectious Disease of the Fetus and Newborn, 5th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., pp 205–346.Google Scholar
Renold, C, Sugar, A, Chave, JP, Perrin, L, Delavelle, J, Pizzolato, G, Burkhard, P, Gabriel, V and Hirschel, B (1992). Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Medicine 71: 224–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Resendes, AR, Almeria, S, Dubey, JP, Obon, E, Juan-Salles, C, Degollada, E, Alegre, F, Cabezon, O, Pont, S and Domingo, M (2002). Disseminated toxoplasmosis in a Mediterranean pregnant Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) with transplacental fetal infection. Journal of Parasitology 88: 1029–1032.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riemann, HP, Fowler, ME, Schulz, T, Lock, JA, Thilsted, J, Pulley, LT, Henrickson, RV, Henness, AM, Franti, CE and Behymer, DE (1974). Toxoplasmosis in Pallas cats. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 10: 471–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, T and Frenkel, JK (1990). Estimating income losses and other preventable costs caused by congenital toxoplasmosis in people in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 196: 249–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, T, Murrell, KD and Marks, S (1994). Economic losses caused by foodborne parasitic diseases. Parasitology Today 10: 419–423.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodaniche de, E and de Pinzon, T (1949). Spontaneous toxoplasmosis in the guinea-pig in Panama. Journal of Parasitology 35: 152–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roghmann, MC, Faulkner, CT, Lefkowitz, A, Patton, S, Zimmerman, J, Morris, JG Jr (1999). Decreased seroprevalence for Toxoplasma gondii in Seventh Day Adventists in Maryland. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 60: 790–792.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roher, DP, Ryan, MJ, Nielsen, SW and Roscoe, DE (1981). Acute fatal toxoplasmosis in squirrels. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 179: 1099–1101.Google ScholarPubMed
Ross, RD, Stec, LA, Werner, JC, Blumenkranz, MS, Glazer, L and Williams, GA (2001). Presumed acquired ocular toxoplasmosis in deer hunters. Retina 21: 226–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sacks, JJ, Delgado, DG, Lobel, HO and Parker, RL (1983). Toxoplasmosis infection associated with eating undercooked venison. American Journal of Epidemiology 118: 832–838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidt, V (1975). Todesursachen bei Kanguruhs. In: Verhanddie Erkrankungen der Zootiere, 4–8 Juni 1975, Tunis, Tunisia, pp 321–325.Google Scholar
Schneider, HE, Berger, G, Dathe, F and Gensch, W (1976). Erkrankungen australischer Tiere im Zoologischen Garten Dresden. Verhandlungsbericht des XVIII. In: Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zootiere, 16–20 Juni 1976, Innsbruck, Austria, pp 5–12.Google Scholar
Schröder, HD and Ippen, R (1976). Beitrag zu den Erkrankungen der Kanguruhs. Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des XVIII. In: Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zootiere, 16–20 Juni 1976, Innsbruck, Austria, pp 21–26.Google Scholar
Shimizu, K (1958). Studies on toxoplasmosis. I. An outbreak of toxoplasmosis among hares (Lepus timidus ainu) in Sapporo. Japanese Journal of Veterinary Research 6: 157–166.Google Scholar
Siepierski, SJ, Tanner, CE and Embil, JA (1990). Prevalence of antibody to Toxoplasma gondii in the moose (Alces alces americana Clinton) of Nova Scotia, Canada. Journal of Parasitology 76: 136–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siim, JC, Biering-Sorensen, U Møller T (1963). Toxoplasmosis in domestic animals. Advances in Veterinary Science 8: 335–429.Google ScholarPubMed
Skerratt, LF, Phelan, R, McFarlane, R and Speare, R (1997). Serodiagnosis of toxoplasmosis in a common wombat. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 15–21.Google Scholar
Smith, DD and Frenkel, JK (1995). Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in wild mammals of Missouri and east central Kansas: biologic and ecologic considerations of transmission. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 15–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, JL (1993). Documented outbreaks of toxoplasmosis: transmission of Toxoplasma gondii to humans. Journal of Food Protection 56: 630–639.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, KE, Fischer, JR and Dubey, JP (1995). Toxoplasmosis in a bobcat (Felis rufus). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 31: 555–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soave, OA and Lennette, EH (1959). Naturally acquired toxoplasmosis in the gray squirrel, Sciurus griseus, and its bearing on the laboratory diagnosis of rabies. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 53: 163–166.Google ScholarPubMed
Sroka, J (2001). Seroepidemiology of toxoplasmosis in the Lublin region. Annals of Agricultural Environmental Medicine 8: 25–31.Google ScholarPubMed
Starzyk, J, Pawlik, B and Pawlik, Z (1973). Studies on the frequency of occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in fur-bearing animals. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia, Series Zoologia 16: 229–233.Google Scholar
Stiglmair-Herb, MT (1987). Microparasitosis (toxoplasmosis) in moutain gazelles (Gazella g. curvieri). Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 100: 273–277.Google Scholar
Stover, J, Jacobson, ER, Lukas, J, Lappin, MR and Buergelt, CD (1990). Toxoplasma gondii in a collection of nondomestic ruminants. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 21: 295–301.Google Scholar
Tenter, AM, Heckeroth, AR and Weiss, LM (2000). Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans. International Journal for Parasitology 30: 1217–1258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teutsch, SM, Juranek, DD, Sulzer, A, Dubey, JP and Sikes, RK (1979). Epidemic toxoplasmosis associated with infected cats. New England Journal of Medicine 300: 695–699.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, SW and Reed, TH (1957). Toxoplasmosis in a swamp wallaby. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 131: 545–549.Google Scholar
Thornton, RN (1990). Toxoplasmosis in ferrets New Zealand Veterinary Journal 38 123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thornton, RW and Cook, TG (1986). A congenital Toxoplasma -like disease in ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). New Zealand Veterinary Journal 34: 31–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Pelt, RW and Dietrich, RA (1972). Toxoplasmosis in thirteen-lined ground squirrels. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 161: 643–647.Google ScholarPubMed
Van Rensburg, IB and Silkstone, MA (1984). Concomitant feline infectious peritonitis and toxoplasmosis in a cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 55: 205–207.Google Scholar
Vanek, JA, Dubey, JP, Thulliez, P, Riggs, MR and Stromberg, BE (1996). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in hunter-killed white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in four regions of Minnesota. Journal of Parasitology 82: 41–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walton, BC and Walls, KW (1964). Prevalence of toxoplasmosis in wild animals from Fort Stewart, Georgia, as indicated by serological tests and mouse inoculation. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 13: 530–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warnekulasuriya, MR, Johnson, JD and Holliman, RE (1998). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in cured meats. International Journal of Food Microbiology 45: 211–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Watson, WA and Beverley, JKA (1962). Toxoplasmosis in mink Veterinary Record 74 1027.Google Scholar
Weigel, RM, Dubey, JP, Siegel, AM, Hoefling, D, Reynolds, D, Herr, L, Kitron, UD, Shen, SK, Thulliez, P, Fayer, R and Todd, TS (1995). Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in swine in Illinois in 1992. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 206: 1747–1751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilhelmsen, CL and Montali, RJ (1980). Toxoplasmosis in a parma wallaby Annual Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 141–143.Google Scholar
Wyss, R, Sager, H, Muller, N, Inderbitzin, F, Konig, M, Audige, L and Gottstein, B (2000). The occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum as regards meat hygiene. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 142: 95–108.Google ScholarPubMed
Zarnke, RL, Dubey, JP, Kwok, OCH and Ver Hoef, JM (1997). Serologic survey for Toxoplasma gondii in grizzly bears from Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 33: 267–270.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeman, DH, Dubey, JP and Robison, D (1993). Fatal hepatic sarcocystosis in an American black bear. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 5: 480–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar