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² Robinson, F. C., ‘Beowulf’ and the Appositive Style (Knoxville, TN, 1985), p. 22.Google Scholar

³ Kaske, R. E., ‘The Sigemund-Heremod and Hama-Hygelac Passages in Beowulf’, PMLA 74 (1959), 489–94, at 490CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For other expressions of the same view, see Bonjour, A., The Digressions in ‘Beowulf’, Medium Ævum Monographs 5 (Oxford, 1950), 46–7Google Scholar; Eliason, N. E., ‘The “Improvised Lay” in Beowulf’, PQ 31 (1952), 171–9, at 178Google Scholar; Gillam, D.M.E., ‘The Use of the Term “Æglæca” in Beowulf at Lines 893 and 2592’, SGG 3 (1961), 145–69, at 167Google Scholar; Creed, R. P., ‘… “Wél-Hwelc Gecwæþ …”: the Singer as Architect’, Texas Stud. in Lit. 11 (1966), 131–43, at 133Google Scholar; Opland, J., ‘From Horseback to Monastic Cell: the Impact on English Literature of the Introduction of Writing’, Old English Literature in Context: Ten Essays, ed. Niles, J. D. (Woodbridge, 1980), pp. 30–43, at 32–3Google Scholar; Andersson, T. M., ‘Tradition and Design in Beowulf’, Old English Literature in Context: Ten Essays, ed. Niles, J. D. (Woodbridge, 1980), pp. 90–106, at 99Google Scholar; Harris, J., ‘Beowulf Literary History’, Interpretations of ‘Beowulf’: a Critical Anthology, ed. Fulk, R. D. (Bloomington, IN, 1991), pp. 235–41, at 239Google Scholar, etc. Doubts about this critical orthodoxy have rarely been voiced, but see, for example, Mackie, W. S., ‘Notes upon the Text and the Interpretation of Beowulf’, MLR 34 (1939), 515–24, at 519CrossRefGoogle Scholar: ‘The Christian poet does not regard the wild career and violent deeds of Sigemund with great approval’; and Stanley, , ‘Beowulf’, p. 129Google Scholar: ‘The poet does not advert to this [poetic] ideal simpliciter, but uses the scop's song to bring out also certain ulteriors, perhaps the crimes of Sigemund (879)’.

⁴ Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg, ed. Klaeber, F., 3rd ed. (Boston, 1950). All subsequent quotations are from the same edition.Google Scholar

⁵ On the necessity for this emendation, see Mitchell, B., Old English Syntax, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1985) I, 494–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ Garmonsway, G. N., Simpson, J. and Davidson, H. E., ‘Beowulf’ and its Analogues (London, 1980), p. 25Google Scholar. The following translations of the passage are referred to throughout this article: Gordon, R. K., Anglo-Saxon Poetry (London, 1926), pp. 21–2Google Scholar; Hall, J.R. Clark, Wrenn, C. L. and Tolkien, J.R.R., Beowulf and The Finnesburg Fragment: a Translation into Modern English Prose (London, 1950), pp. 65–6Google Scholar; Wright, D., Beowulf: a Prose Translation (London, 1957), pp. 47–8Google Scholar; Crossley-Holland, K. and Mitchell, B., Beowulf (London 1968), pp. 56–7Google Scholar; Alexander, M., Beowulf: a Verse Translation (London, 1973), pp. 78–9Google Scholar; Chickering, H. D., Beowulf: a Dual-Language Edition (Garden City, NY, 1977), pp. 99–101Google Scholar; Beowulf, ed. and trans. Swanton, M. (Manchester, 1978), p. 77Google Scholar; Greenfield, S. B., A Readable Beowulf: the Old English Epic Newly Translated (Carbondale, IL, 1982), pp. 65–6Google Scholar; Hieatt, C. B. and Hieatt, A. K., Beowulf and Other Old English Poems, 2nd ed. (Toronto, 1982), p. 25Google Scholar; Bradley, S.A.J., Anglo-Saxon Poetry: an Anthology of Old English Poems in Prose Translation with Introduction and Headnotes (London, 1982), pp. 434–5Google Scholar; Porter, J., Beowulf (Lampeter, 1989), lines 874–902Google Scholar; Porter, J., Beowulf: Text and Translation (London, 1991), pp. 61–3.Google Scholar

⁷ See, for example, Chickering, , Beowulf, p. 312Google Scholar: ‘He uses the Danish scop's song to vault into a new, timeless realm where he and the scop speak together with the voice of history’, and Clark, G., Beowulf (Boston, 1990), p. 40Google Scholar: ‘The narrator's brief summary of the Danish poet's account of Beowulf's venture makes the Anglo-Saxon and the (fictional) Danish poem one … and thus joins the poem's actors and its audience as sharers of a single poetic tradition’.

⁸ The view was first proposed by Grundtvig; see Beowulf, ed. Klaeber, , p. 161Google Scholar, and Heusler's, A. entry on Sigfrid in Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumsktinde, ed. Hoops, J., 4 vols. (Strassburg, 1911–1919) IV, 173–7, at 173Google Scholar. The reference to Fitela in 889 suggests, however, that the person indicated by æþelinges bearn and him (889) is the same as that denoted by hine in 879, i.e. Sigemund.

⁹ For this possibility and its implications, see Tolkien, J.R.R., Finn and Hengest: the Fragment and the Episode, ed. Bliss, A. (London, 1982), p. 59.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Beowulf, ed. Swanton, , p. 18Google Scholar. See also Gillam, , ‘“Æglæca” in Beowulf’, p. 166Google Scholar: ‘The poet could probably draw upon whole areas of experience in which his audience had already met Sigemund and the stories connected with him’; and Caie, G. D., The Judgment Day Theme in Old English Poetry (Copenhagen, 1976), p. 36: ‘… the poet compares his hero to Sigemund who would have been well known to the Anglo-Saxon audience’.Google Scholar

¹¹ Burgess, G. S. and Busby, K., The Lais of Marie de France (London, 1986), p. 41.Google Scholar

¹² These are the only, examples in Beowulf of noun clauses introduced by þæt following these verbs; see Cameron, A., Amos, A. Crandell and Waite, G., ‘A Reconsideration of the Language of Beowulf’, The Dating of ‘Beowulf’, ed. Chase, C., Toronto OE ser. 6 (Toronto, 1981), 63.Google Scholar

¹³ See The Dream of the Rood, ed. Dickens, B. and Ross, A.S.C., 4th ed. (London, 1954), p. 43.Google Scholar

¹⁴ The dragon fight in Völsunga Saga is extremely short: Sigurd slays Fafnir with a single blow at his first onslaught. See The Saga of the Volsungs, ed. and trans. Finch, R. G. (London, 1965), p. 31.Google Scholar

¹⁵ The Vercelli Homilies, ed. Scragg, D. G., EETS os 300 (Oxford, 1992)Google Scholar, Homily XVII, lines 75–6 (p. 283). A semantic distinction between the two compounds is to some extent supported by their use in the rest of the poetic corpus: ellendæd is used of the brave deeds ended by the eating of the forbidden fruit (GenB 484), and of those of the Assyrians terminated by the onslaught of the Hebrews (jud 273); the mission to save Matthew which God entrusts to Andrew is termed ellenweorc (And 232), and Guthlac speaks of the ellenweorc in which he has long fought for God (Guth A 641). On the other hand, the devil in Andreas claims that his followers will crush Andrew by their valiant deeds (ellenweorcum), but he is a famous liar, and may here be appropriating and abusing a term with moral connotation. Professor Eric Stanley has suggested to me that weorc also implies greater difficulty than dæd.

¹⁶ See Beowulf and Judith, ed. Dobbie, E.V.K., ASPR 4 (New York, 1953), 120.Google Scholar

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²⁹ See Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England, ed. Cockayne, T. O., 3 vols. (London, 1864–1866) III, 166Google Scholar, firenum 7 gyltum; and Das ags. Prosa-Leben des hl. Guthlac, ed. Gonser, P., Anglistische Forschungen 27 (Heidelberg, 1909), 120, fyrena and leahteras (the other manuscript has synna and leahtras).Google Scholar

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³¹ Heremod's fyren is usually regarded as damning; note, for example, Goldsmith, M., The Mode and Meaning of Beowulf (London, 1970), p. 189Google Scholar: ‘Though fyren has the secular meaning of “crime” or “wickedness” it is also the Christian word for “sin”, and the slight personification indicated by onwod makes the religious sense more probable here’.

³² Hieatt, , Beowulf, pp. 25 and 6Google Scholar, Alexander, , Beowulf, pp. 78 and 55Google Scholar, and Wright, , Beowulf, pp. 47 and 30Google Scholar respectively. In similar vein, note the comment of B. Moore that firen is ‘used to describe the violent deeds that Sigemund survived’: ‘The Thryth-Offa Digression in Beowulf’, Neophilologus 64 (1980), 127–33, at 128.Google Scholar

³³ Porter, , Beowulf (1989), line 878Google Scholar, and Beowulf (1991), p. 61.Google Scholar

³⁴ Beowulf, ed. Dobbie, , p. 159Google Scholar. Note, also, Andrew, S. O., Syntax and Style in Old English (New York, 1940), p. 107Google Scholar: ‘And what can be the construction of þara in 877… where a noun of reference fails altogether’

³⁵ On the identity of the hand, see Zupitza, J., Beowulf: Autotypes of the Unique Cotton MS Vitellius A. xv in the British Museum, with a Transliteration and Notes, 2nd ed. containing a new reproduction of the manuscript, with an introductory note by Davis, N., EETS os 245 (London, 1959), 42Google Scholar. The form of the correction – a superscript letter above one which is not underdotted – is elsewhere used by the scribe to show insertion, e.g. at line 1109; only here does it seem to indicate substitution, which is elsewhere marked by underdotting. The lack of the expected dot may be a simple error, or might suggest that the scribe was uncertain of the correction. The morphology fyrene is complicated by the possibility that the spelling may represent an early example of the levelling of the OE inflexions; see Malone, K., ‘When did Middle English begin?’, Language Monographs 7 (1930), 110–17, at 116.Google Scholar

³⁶ See Biddle, M., ‘Excavations at Winchester 1965: Fourth Interim Report’, AntJ 46 (1966), 308–32, at 329–32, and pl. LXIIa.Google Scholar

³⁷ Collingwood, W. G., Northumbrian Crosses of the Pre-Norman Age (London, 1927), p. 160Google Scholar. On the Manx crosses, see Kermode, P.M.C., Manx Crosses (London, 1907), pp. 57–8 and 172–80Google Scholar. The ‘Sigurd’ shaft could be directly Scandinavian. The right side of the Franks Casket may depict the death of Sigemund; for discussion and references, see The Anglo-Saxon Minor Poems, ed. Dobbie, E.V.K., ASPR 6 (New York, 1942), cxxvii and n. 2Google Scholar. Knowledge of the Volsungs is perhaps also suggested by the OE place-name Walsingham: ‘The HĀM of Wæls's people’, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names, ed. Ekwall, E., 4th ed. (Oxford, 1960), p. 494Google Scholar. Wilson, R. M. is inclined to believe that the Anglo-Saxons knew the story of Sigemund: see The Lost Literature of Medieval England, 2nd ed. (London, 1970), pp. 18–19.Google Scholar

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⁴¹ Note, for example, that Ingeld and Froda, who are Heathobards in Beowulf, are Danes according to Saxo Grammaticus.

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⁴³ Quoted from Garmonsway et al., ‘Beowulf’;, p. 251.Google Scholar

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⁵¹ Gen. XIX.31 testifies to the agedness of Lot: ‘And the firstborn said unto the younger, Our father is old’.

⁵² The emendation makes sense, but is not essential: the manuscript form earme may be construed as a weak feminine adjective used substantively. On the unusual metre of Beo 881 a and Rid 46.6a, and for the suggestion that both are members of a formulaic system of great antiquity, see Kendall, C. B., The Metrical Grammar of ‘Beowulf’, CSASE 5 (Cambridge, 1991), 137–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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⁵⁷ Ibid. p. 123.

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⁵⁹ Amongst the great deal of literature on these forms, see Williams, R. A., The Finn Episode in Beowulf: an Essay in Interpretation (Cambridge, 1924), Appendix I, pp. 139–43Google Scholar; Dickins, B., ‘English Names and Old English Heathenism’, Essays & Studies 19 (1933), 148–60, at 157–8Google Scholar; Kaske, R. E., ‘The Eotenas in Beowulf’, Old English Poetry: Fifteen Essays, ed. Creed, R. P. (Providence, RI, 1967), pp. 285–310Google Scholar, and Finn and Hengest, ed. Bliss, , pp. 53–63.Google Scholar

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⁶⁵ Respectively, Alexander, , Beowulf, p. 78Google Scholar, Porter, , Beowulf (1989)Google Scholar, line 883, Checkering, , Beowulf, p. 99Google Scholar, and Greenfield, , Readable Beowulf, p. 66.Google Scholar

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⁶⁸ There are six occurrences in verse (all mentioned in this section), and two in prose.

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⁸⁵ Frequently so, or uniformly, in all the translations consulted (see above, n. 6) with the exception of Greenfield's.

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⁸⁹ Ibid. p. 371.

⁹⁰ ‘Notorious’, ‘infamous’ and ‘ill-famed’ on one or both occasions are offered by Clark-Hall, Wright, Crossley-Holland, Chickering, Swanton, Greenfield, Hieatt and Bradley. For references, see above, n. 6.

⁹¹ The compound, wid-mære, and the collocation, wide mærost, are lexically very similar.

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⁹⁵ Hieatt has ‘wanderers’, Gordon, Clark-Hall, Wright and Alexander have ‘adventurers’, Greenfield ‘fighting men’, Chickering ‘hero-adventurer’, Porter (1991), ‘heroes’; Garmons-way, Swanton and Bradley have ‘exiles’, ‘men in exile’. For references, see above, n. 6.

⁹⁶ I am very happy to be able to take the opportunity here warmly to acknowledge the many helpful criticisms of an earlier draft of this paper made by Professor Eric Stanley, Professor Malcolm Godden, Professor Jane Toswell, Ms Louise Pickering and Mr Alan Ward.