Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-24T02:17:38.344Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

UNDER THE LORDLY MONARCHS OF THE NORTH: THE EPIGRAPHY OF NORTHERN BELIZE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 January 2020

Christophe Helmke*
Affiliation:
Institute of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, Karen Blixens Plads 8, DK-2300Copenhagen S, Denmark
*
E-mail correspondence to: [email protected]

Abstract

The hieroglyphic texts of northern Belize are remarkable for their longevity, spanning from the Late Preclassic to the Late Postclassic (ca. 100 b.ca.d. 1544). Together, these texts constitute an invaluable body of information that has thus far been generally overlooked and has not been integrated into larger syntheses of the region. This paper provides a diachronic review of the glyphic texts of northern Belize and contrasts them to the wider historical processes of the eastern Maya lowlands. A definition of the northern Belizean region precedes an outline of the corpora of monuments, as well as the textual sources on portable objects. This provides an historical review of northern Belize from the incipience of royalty to the eve of the Spanish Conquest.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Acuña, Mary J. 2016 Royal Death, Tombs and Cosmic Landscapes: Early Classic Maya Tomb Murals from Río Azul, Guatemala. Maya Archaeology 31:68185.Google Scholar
Andres, Christopher R., Helmke, Christophe, Morton, Shawn G., Wrobel, Gabriel D., and González, Jason J. 2014 Contextualizing the Glyphic Texts of Tipan Chen Uitz, Cayo District, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 25:4664.10.7183/1045-6635.25.1.46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awe, Jaime J. 2013 Was There a Prehistoric Dzuluinicob? Paper presented at the 11th Belize Archaeology and Anthropology Symposium, San Ignacio.Google Scholar
Balanzario, Sandra, and Nalda, Enrique 2009 Contextos funerarios tempranos en Kohunlich. Arqueología 41:6478.Google Scholar
Ball, Joseph W. 1993 Pottery, Potters, Palaces, and Polities: Some Socioeconomic and Political Implications of Late Classic Maya Ceramic Industries. In New Perspectives on Classic Maya Civilization: Lowland Societies in the Eighth Century a.d., edited by Sabloff, Jeremy A. and Henderson, John S., pp. 243272. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Bardawil, Lawrence W. 1976 The Principal Bird Deity in Maya Art: An Iconographic Study of Form and Meaning. In The Art, Iconography, and Dynastic History of Palenque, Part III, edited by Robertson, Merle Greene, pp. 195209. Pre-Columbian Art Research, Pebble Beach.Google Scholar
Beetz, Carl P., and Satterthwaite, Linton 1981 The Monuments and Inscriptions of Caracol, Belize. University Museum Monograph 45. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Beliaev, Dmitri 2000 Wuk Tsuk and Oxlahun Tsuk: Naranjo and Tikal in the Late Classic. In The Sacred and the Profane: Architecture and Identity in the Maya Lowlands, edited by Colas, Pierre Robert, Delvendahl, Kai, Kuhnert, Marcus, and Schubart, Annette, pp. 6382. Acta Mesoamericana, Vol. 10. Verlag Anton Saurwein, Markt Schwaben.Google Scholar
Blom, Frans 1950 A Polychrome Maya Plate from Quintana Roo. Notes on Middle American Archaeology and Ethnology 4:8184.Google Scholar
Boot, Erik 2010 Maya Writing: Synonyms and Homonyms, Polyvalency and Polysemy. In The Idea of Writing: Play and Complexity, edited by de Voogt, Alexander J. and Finkel, Irving L., pp. 253279. Koninklijke Brill, Leiden.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z. 1985 Ganned But Not Forgotten: Late Postclassic Archaeology and Ritual at Santa Rita Corozal, Belize. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Chase, Arlen F. and Rice, Prudence M., pp. 104125. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 1988 A Postclassic Perspective: Excavations at the Maya Site of Santa Rita Corozal, Northern Belize. PARI Monograph 4. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 2005 The Early Classic Period at Santa Rita Corozal: Issues of Hierarchy, Heterarchy and Stratification in Northern Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 2:111129.Google Scholar
Christenson, Allen J. 2007 Popol Vuh: Sacred Book of the Quiché Maya People. Electronic document, http://www.mesoweb.com/publications/Christenson/PopolVuh.pdf, accessed May 24, 2015.Google Scholar
Closs, Michael P. 1988 The Hieroglyphic Text of Stela 9, Lamanai, Belize. Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 21:916.Google Scholar
Freidel, David 2005 The Creation Mountains: Structure 5C-2nd and Late Preclassic Kingship. In Lords of Creation: The Origins of Sacred Maya Kingship, edited by Fields, Virginia M. and Reents-Budet, Dorie J., pp. 5253. Scala, London.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas W.F. 1897 On the Contents of Some Ancient Mounds in Central America. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London 6:308317.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas W.F. 1900 Mounds in Northern Honduras. In Nineteenth Annual Report, 1897–1898, Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 2, pp. 661692. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas W.F. 1918 The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 64. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas W.F. 1943 Painted Stucco Heads from Louisville, British Honduras. In Middle American Research Records, Vol. 1, pp. 1316. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas W.F., and Gann, Mary 1939 Archaeological Investigations in the Corozal District of British Honduras. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, No. 123, pp. 1–59. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Gibson, Eric C., Shaw, Leslie C., and Finamore, Daniel R. 1986 Early Evidence of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing at Kichpanha, Belize. Working Papers in Archaeology, No. 2. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio.10.21112/ita.1986.1.35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth 2008 Lamanai Historic Monuments Conservation Project: Recording and Consolidation of New Church Architectural Features at Lamanai, Belize. Report submitted to the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Crystal River.Google Scholar
Graham, Elizabeth, Pendergast, David M., and Jones, Grant D. 1989 On the Fringes of Conquest: Maya-Spanish Contact in Colonial Belize. Science 246:12541259.10.1126/science.246.4935.1254CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grube, Nikolai 1994a A Preliminary Report on the Monuments and Inscriptions of La Milpa, Orange Walk, Belize. Bæssler-Archiv: Beiträge zur Völkerkunde 42:217238.Google Scholar
Grube, Nikolai 1994b Epigraphic Research at Caracol, Belize. In Studies in the Archaeology of Caracol, Belize, edited by Chase, Arlen F. and Chase, Diane Z., pp. 83122. PARI Monograph 7. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Grube, Nikolai 2004a El origen de la dinastía Kaan. In Los cautivos de Dzibanché, edited by Nalda, Enrique, pp. 117131. CONACULTA, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Grube, Nikolai 2004b Las antiguas biografías mayas desde una perspectiva comparativa. In Janaab’ Pakal de Palenque: Vida y muerte de un gobernante maya, edited by Tiesler, Vera and Cucina, Andrea, pp. 227261. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Guderjan, Thomas H. 2004 Public Architecture, Ritual, and Temporal Dynamics at the Maya Center of Blue Creek, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 15:235250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guenter, Stanley P. 2014 The Queen of Cobá: A Reanalysis of the Macanxoc Stelae. In The Archaeology of Yucatán, edited by Stanton, Travis W., pp. 395421. Pre-Columbian Archaeology 1. Archaeopress, Oxford.Google Scholar
Guenter, Stanley P. 2016 Kingdoms of Water: Altun Ha and Lamanai in the Classic Period. Paper presented at the 10th Annual Maya at the Playa Conference, Palm Coast.Google Scholar
Haines, Helen R., and Helmke, Christophe 2016 Painted Hieroglyphs from Tomb FA-6/1 at Ka'kabish, Belize. Mexicon 38:120126.Google Scholar
Hall, Grant D. 1986 Results of Tomb Investigations at Rio Azul, Season of 1984. In Rio Azul Reports Number 2, The 1984 Season, edited by Adams, Richard E.W., pp. 69111. University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio.Google Scholar
Hall, Grant D. 1987 The Discovery of Tomb 23 and Results of Other Tomb Investigations at Rio Azul, Season of 1985. In Rio Azul Reports, Number 3, The 1985 Season, edited by Adams, Richard E.W., pp. 107151. University of Texas, San Antonio.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1973 Archaeology in Northern Belize before 1973. In British Museum-Cambridge University Corozal Project 1973 Interim Report, edited by Hammond, Norman, pp. 619. Centre of Latin American Studies, University of Cambridge, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1982 A Late Formative Period Stela in the Maya Lowlands. American Antiquity 47:396403.10.2307/279910CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, Norman 2001 A New Maya Stela from La Milpa, Belize. Antiquity 75:267268.10.1017/S0003598X00060877CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Runggaldier, Astrid 2000 Recontextualizing Louisville. Antiquity 74:493494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Bobo, Matthew R. 1994 Pilgrimage's Last Mile: Late Maya Monument Veneration at La Milpa, Belize. World Archaeology 26:1934.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammond, Norman, Heller, Eric, Houk, Brett A., and Gair Tourtellot, III 2014 Three New Stelae at La Milpa, Belize? Mexicon 36:8893.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, Tourtellot, Gair, Donaghey, Sara, and Clark, Amanda 1996 Survey and Excavation at La Milpa, Belize, 1996. Mexicon 18:8691.Google Scholar
Hanratty, Colleen, Love, Bruce, Guenter, Stanley, and Guderjan, Tom 2016 First Evidence of the Ka'an Dynasty in Northern Belize. Mexicon 38:142.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe 1999 Preliminary Comments on the Altun Ha Dynastic Sequence: An Epigraphic and Ceramic Analysis. Paper presented at Maya Universe Symposium and Exhibit, Gardiner Museum of Ceramic Art, Toronto.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe 2017 El pasado es un país lejano: Un análisis epigráfico de los textos mayas de Tetitla, Teotihuacan. In Las pinturas realistas de Tetitla, Teotihuacan. Estudios a través de la obra de Agustín Villagra Caleti, edited by Cicero, Leticia Staines and Helmke, Christophe, pp. 101134. Secretaría de Cultura, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe 2018a Continued Documentation of Carved Monuments at Lamanai. In Report on the 2017 Investigations at Lamanai, edited by Graham, Elizabeth, pp. 310. Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe 2018b The –n-ib and –l-ib Suffixes in Ch'olan Languages and Ancient Maya Writing. In Tiempo detenido, tiempo suficiente. Ensayos y narraciones mesoamericanistas en homenaje a Alfonso Lacadena García-Gallo, edited by Kettunen, Harri, López, Verónica Amellali Vázquez, Kupprat, Felix, Lorenzo, Cristina Vidal, Cosme, Gaspar Muñoz, and Ponce de León, María Josefa Iglesias, pp. 415478. Wayeb Publication 1.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe 2019a Reading between the Lines: The Epigraphy of Central Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 15:3146.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe 2019b An Analysis of the Imagery and Text of the Cuychen Vase. In The Realm Below: Speleoarchaeological Investigations in the Macal River Valley, Belize, edited by Helmke, Christophe, pp. 122159. Precolumbia Mesoweb Press, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Kupprat, Felix A. 2017 Los glifos emblema y los lugares sobrenaturales: El caso de Kanu'l y sus implicaciones. Estudios de Cultura Maya 50:95135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Awe, Jaime J. 2008 Organización territorial de los antiguos mayas de Belice Central: Confluencia de datos arqueológicos y epigráficos. Mayab 20:6591.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Awe, Jaime J. 2016a Death Becomes Her: An analysis of Panel 3, Xunantunich. The PARI Journal 16:114.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Awe, Jaime J. 2016b Sharper Than a Serpent's Tooth: A Tale of the Snake-Head Dynasty as Recounted on Xunantunich Panel 4. The PARI Journal 17:122.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Nielsen, Jesper 2009 Hidden Identity and Power in Ancient Mesoamerica: Supernatural Alter Egos as Curses and Diseases. Acta Americana 17:4998.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Nielsen, Jesper 2013 The Writing on the Wall: A Paleographic Analysis of the Maya Texts of Tetitla, Teotihuacan. In The Maya in a Mesoamerican Context: Comparative Approaches to Maya Studies, edited by Nielsen, Jesper and Helmke, Christophe, pp. 123166. Acta Mesoamericana, Vol. 26. Verlag Anton Saurwein, Markt Schwaben.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Nielsen, Jesper 2014 Identifying the Provenance and Dating of Maya Influences at the Cacaxtla Court. In Palaces and Courtly Culture in Ancient Mesoamerica, edited by Knub, Julie Nehammer, Helmke, Christophe, and Nielsen, Jesper, pp. 1735. Pre-Columbian Archaeology, Vol. 4. Archaeopress, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Nielsen, Jesper 2015 The Defeat of the Great Bird in Myth and Royal Pageantry: A Mesoamerican Myth in a Comparative Perspective. Comparative Mythology 1:2360.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Andres, Christopher R., Morton, Shawn G., and Wrobel, Gabriel D. 2015a For Love of the Game: The Ballplayer Panels of Tipan Chen Uitz in Light of Late Classic Athletic Hegemony. The PARI Journal 16:130.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Hammond, Gail, Guderjan, Thomas, Greaves, Pieta, and Hanratty, Colleen 2019 Sighting a Royal Vehicle: Observations on the Graffiti of Tulix Mul, Belize. The PARI Journal 19:1030.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Awe, Jaime, and Grube, Nikolai 2010 The Carved Monuments and Inscriptions of Xunantunich. In Classic Maya Provincial Politics: Xunantunich and Its Hinterlands, edited by LeCount, Lisa J. and Yaeger, Jason, pp. 97121. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Awe, Jaime J., and Kettunen, Harri J. 2004 Hieroglyphic Inscriptions of the Belize Valley: Implications for Socio-Political Landscape and Dynastic Interaction. Paper presented at the 27th Annual Texas Maya Meetings, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Awe, Jaime J., Morton, Shawn G., and Iannone, Gyles 2015b The Text and Context of the Cuychen Vase, Macal Valley, Belize. Maya Archaeology 3:829.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Guenter, Stanley P., and Wanyerka, Phillip J. 2018 Kings of the East: Altun Ha and the Water Scroll Emblem Glyph. Ancient Mesoamerica 29:113135.10.1017/S0956536117000256CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmke, Christophe G.B., Grube, Nikolai, Awe, Jaime J., and Healy, Paul F. 2006 A Reinterpretation of Stela 6, Pacbitun, Belize. Mexicon 28:7075.Google Scholar
Houk, Brett A. 2015 Ancient Maya Cities of the Eastern Lowlands. University of Florida Press, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Houk, Brett A., Robichaux, Hubert R., and Valdez, Fred Jr. 2010 An Early Royal Maya Tomb from Chan Chich, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 21:229248.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Houston, Stephen D. 1989 Maya Glyphs. British Museum and University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Houston, Stephen D. 2008 A Classic Maya Bailiff? Electronic document, https://decipherment.wordpress.com/2008/03/10/a-classic-maya-bailiff, accessed July 6, 2018.Google Scholar
Houston, Stephen D., Stuart, David, and Taube, Karl 1992 Image and Text on the Jauncy Vase. In The Maya Vase Book, Vol. 3, edited by Kerr, Justin, pp. 504523. Kerr Associates, New York.Google Scholar
Lacadena García-Gallo, Alfonso 1995 Evolución formal de las grafías escriturarias mayas: Implicaciones históricas y culturales. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of the History of the Americas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid.Google Scholar
Lacadena García-Gallo, Alfonso 2003 El corpus glífico de Ek’ Balam, Yucatán, México. Electronic document, http://www.famsi.org/reports/01057es/index.html, accessed November 11, 2011.Google Scholar
Long, Richard C. E. 1919 Date of the Maya Ruins at Santa Rita. Man 19:5961.10.2307/2840663CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Love, Bruce 1994 The Paris Codex: Handbook for a Maya Priest. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
MacLeod, Barbara, and Stone, Andrea J. 1995 The Hieroglyphic Inscriptions of Naj Tunich. In Images from the Underworld: Naj Tunich and the Tradition of Maya Cave Painting, edited by Stone, Andrea J., pp. 155184. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon 1997 The Painted King List: A Commentary on Codex-Style Dynastic Vases. In The Maya Vase Book, Volume 5, edited by Kerr, Justin and Kerr, Barbara, pp. 847867. Kerr Associates, New York.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon 2005 Of Snakes and Bats: Shifting Identities at Calakmul. The PARI Journal 6:513.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon, Tokovinine, Alexandre, Treffel, Elodie, and Fialko, Vilma 2017 La Estela 46 de Naranjo Sa'al, Petén, Guatemala: Hallazgo y texto jeroglífico. In XXX Simposio de investigaciones arqueológicas en Guatemala, tomo II, edited by Arroyo, Bárbara, Salinas, Luis Méndez, and Álvarez, Gloria Ajú, pp. 669684. Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes, Instituto de Antropología e Historia, and Asociación Tikal, Guatemala City.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon, and Beliaev, Dmitri 2017 K'ahk’ Ti’ Ch'ich’: A New Snake King from the Early Classic Period. The PARI Journal 17(3):17.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon, and García, Erik Velásquez 2016 Polities and Places: Tracing the Toponyms of the Snake Dynasty. The PARI Journal 17(2):2333.Google Scholar
Martin, Simon, and Grube, Nikolai 2000 Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Mathews, Peter 1979 The Glyphs on the Ear Ornaments from Tomb A-1/1. In Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 1, edited by Pendergast, David M., pp. 7980. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Mathews, Peter, and Pendergast, David M. 1979 The Altun Ha Jade Plaque: Deciphering the Inscription. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility 41:197214.Google Scholar
Miller, Arthur G. 1982 On the Edge of the Sea: Mural Painting at Tancah-Tulum, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Nielsen, Jesper, and Helmke, Christophe 2015 The Fall of the Great Celestial Bird: A Master Myth in Early Classic Central Mexico. Ancient America 13:146.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1979 Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 1. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1981 Lamanai, Belize: Summary of Excavation Results, 1974–1980. Journal of Field Archaeology 8:2953.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1982 Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 2. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1988 Lamanai Stela 9: The Archaeological Context. Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 20:18.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1990 Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 3. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1991 The Southern Maya Lowlands Contact Experience: The View from Lamanai, Belize. In Columbian Consequences Volume 3: The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective, edited by Thomas, David Hurst, pp. 336354. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1993 The Center and the Edge: Archaeology in Belize, 1809–1992. Journal of World Prehistory 7:133.10.1007/BF00978219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prager, Christian 2013 A Study of the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions of Pusilha, Toledo District, Belize. Indiana 30:247282.Google Scholar
Prufer, Keith M., and Wanyerka, Phillip J. 2005 A New Early Classic Stela from Uxbenká, Belize. Mexicon 27:102103.Google Scholar
Quirarte, Jacinto 1975 The Wall Paintings of Santa Rita, Corozal. Belizean Studies 3:529.Google Scholar
Quirarte, Jacinto 1982 The Santa Rita Murals: A Review. In Aspects of the Mixteca-Puebla Style and Mixtec and Central Mexican Culture in Southern Mesoamerica, pp. 4359. Middle American Research Institute Occasional Paper 4. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Reents-Budet, Dorie, Bishop, Ronald L., and MacLeod, Barbara 1994 Painting Styles, Workshop Locations and Pottery Production. In Painting the Maya Universe: Royal Ceramics of the Classic Period, edited by Reents-Budet, Dorie, pp. 164233. Duke University Press and Duke University Museum of Art, Durham and London.Google Scholar
Reents-Budet, Dorie J. 1988 The Iconography of Lamanai Stela 9. Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 22:1732.Google Scholar
Rissolo, Dominque 2003 Ancient Maya Cave Use in the Yalahau Region, Northern Quintana Roo, Mexico. Bulletin 12. Association for Mexican Cave Studies, Austin.Google Scholar
Robertson, Donald 1970 The Tulum Murals: The International Style of the Late Post-Classic. In Verhandlungen des XXXVIII Internationalen Amerikanisten-Kongreses, Stuttgart-München, 1968, Vol. 2, pp. 7788. Kommissionsverlag Klaus Renner, Munich.Google Scholar
Robichaux, Hubert R., and Houk, Brett A. 2005 A Hieroglyphic Plate Fragment from Dos Hombres, Belize: Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence Relating to Political Organization in the Three Rivers Region of Northwestern Belize and Northeastern Guatemala. Mono y Conejo 3:412.Google Scholar
Runggaldier, Astrid 2004 Classic Maya Polychrome Stucco Sculptures from Louisville, Belize. BAR International Series 1264. Archaeopress, Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saturno, William A., Stuart, David, and Beltrán, Boris 2006 Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala. Science 311:12811283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Savchenko, Ivan 2015 The Last Monument of Naranjo, Peten, Guatemala: A Reconstruction of the Late Dynastic History of the Naranjo Polity. Mexicon 37:3639.Google Scholar
Schele, Linda, and Freidel, David 1988 Kingship in the Late Preclassic Maya Lowlands: The Instruments and Places of Ritual Power. American Anthropologist 90:547567.Google Scholar
Schele, Linda, and Freidel, David 1990 A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William Morrow, New York.Google Scholar
Shelby, Thomas M. 2000 Report of the 1998 and 1999 Investigations on the Archaeology and Iconography of the Polychrome Stucco Façade of Structure N10-28, Lamanai, Belize. Electronic document, http://www.famsi.org/reports/98037/index.html, accessed March 5, 2011.Google Scholar
Sidrys, Raymond V. (editor) 1976 Mesoamerica: An Archaeological Analysis of a Low-Energy Civilization. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Sidrys, Raymond V. 1983 Archaeological Excavations in Northern Belize, Central America. Monograph No. 17. Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Stemp, W. James, Awe, Jaime J., and Helmke, Christophe 2014 The Macrolith of El Chiquero, Belize. Mexicon 36:145150.Google Scholar
Stone, Andrea, and Zender, Marc 2011 Reading Maya Art: A Hieroglyphic Guide to Ancient Maya Painting and Sculpture. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Stuart, David 2005 The Inscriptions from Temple XIX at Palenque. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Stuart, David 2008 Unusual Signs 1: A Possible Co Syllable. Electronic document, https://decipherment.wordpress.com/2008/09/13/unusual-signs-1-a-possible-co-syllable, accessed March 17, 2018.Google Scholar
Stuart, David 2012 The Name of Paper: The Mythology of Crowning and Royal Nomenclature on Palenque's Palace Tablet. Maya Archaeology 2:116142.Google Scholar
Stuart, David 2017 An Intriguing Date on the Tz'unun Panel. Electronic document, https://decipherment.wordpress.com/2017/01/20/an-intriguing-date, accessed June 29, 2019.Google Scholar
Stuart, David, Canuto, Marcello, Barrientos, Tomás, and González, Alejandro 2018 A Preliminary Analysis of Altar 5 from La Corona. The PARI Journal 19:113.Google Scholar
Stuart, George E. 1988 Glyph Drawings from Landa's Relación: A Caveat to the Investigator. Research Reports on Ancient Maya Writing 19:2332.Google Scholar
Taube, Karl A. 1992 The Major Gods of Yucatan. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology No. 32. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Taube, Karl A. 2010 At Dawn's Edge: Tulum, Santa Rita, and Floral Symbolism in the International Style of the Late Postclassic Mesoamerica. In Astronomers, Scribes, and Priests: Intellectual Interchange between the Northern Maya Lowlands and Highland Mexico in the Late Postclassic Period, edited by Vail, Gabrielle and Hernández, Christine, pp. 145191. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Taube, Karl A., Saturno, William A., Stuart, David, and Hurst, Heather 2010 The Murals of San Bartolo, El Petén, Guatemala, Part 2: The West Wall. Ancient America 10:103107.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1939 Excavations at San Jose, British Honduras. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 506. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1950 Maya Hieroglyphic Writing: Introduction. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 589. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1965 Archaeological Synthesis of the Southern Maya Lowlands. In Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 2, Pt. 1, edited by Wauchope, Robert and Willey, Gordon, pp. 331359. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Tokovinine, Alexandre 2013 Place and Identity in Classic Maya Narratives. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, No. 37. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Tsukamoto, Kenichiro, and Esparza Olguín, Octavio Q. 2014 Ajpach’ Waal: The Hieroglyphic Stairway of the Guzmán Group of El Palmar, Campeche, Mexico. Maya Archaeology 3:3055.Google Scholar
Vail, Gabrielle, and Hernández, Christine 2009 Cords and Crocodilians: Creation Mythology in Late Postclassic Maya Iconography and Texts. In The Maya and their Sacred Narratives: Text and Context in Maya Mythologies, edited by Fort, Geneviève Le, Gardiol, Raphaël, Matteo, Sebastian, and Helmke, Christophe, pp. 89108. Acta Mesoamericana, Vol. 20. Verlag Anton Saurwein, Markt Schwaben.Google Scholar
Velásquez García, Erik 2019 Los gobernantes de la dinastía Kaanu'l en Dzibanché, Quintana Roo. Paper presented at the 11th Congreso Internacional de Mayistas, Universidad de Quintana Roo, Chetumal.Google Scholar
Wanyerka, Phillip J. 2003 The Southern Belize Epigraphic Project: The Hieroglyphic Inscriptions of Southern Belize. Report submitted to the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Crystal River.Google Scholar