Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T23:19:55.825Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

RECONSIDERING THE BELIZE VALLEY PRECLASSIC: A case for multiethnic interactions in the development of a regional culture tradition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 March 2004

Joseph W. Ball  and
Jennifer T. Taschek
Joseph W. Ball
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4443, USA
Jennifer T. Taschek
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4443, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Despite more than two decades of extensive and highly productive research programs by a series of institutions and individuals focusing specifically on the Preclassic archaeology of the Belize River Valley, understanding and appreciation of the region's ceramic tradition and interpreted culture history today effectively remain based on, and dependent on, unmodified conceptual formulations from the 1940s through the 1960s. These incorporate a view of the zonal Preclassic ceramic sequence as the physical embodiment of a uniform and even unitary local producer–consumer system tied directly and genetically to the later Classic and Postclassic Maya inhabitants of the region. In this paper, we question both these assumptions and the soundness of the conceptual constructs (ceramic complexes) and framework (ceramic sequence) on which they are based. We examine the content and analyze the composition of the Belize Valley Middle and Late Preclassic ceramic complexes as dynamic, composite, producer–consumer circulation assemblages rather than as static, synthetic archaeological units, and we conclude that they reflect a much more complex socioeconomic, cultural, and sociopolitical landscape than has yet been recognized and appreciated by other investigators. We propose the presence and interaction within the valley during the Middle and Late Preclassic of at least two distinct dialectal, ethnic, or ethnolinguistic groups, and we argue that the local cultural tradition emerging in the area by the ceramic Protoclassic represented a ranked amalgamation of these. The paper also presents the first comprehensive and complete type-variety typologies for the Middle through Late Preclassic ceramic complexes of the upper Belize Valley, incorporating both new data from the 1980s and 1990s and substantive revisions of earlier work by J. E. S. Thompson and James C. Gifford.

Type
Research Article
Information
Ancient Mesoamerica , Volume 14 , Issue 2 , October 2003 , pp. 179 - 217
Copyright
© 2003 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adams, Richard E.W. 1971 The Ceramics of Altar de Sacrificios. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 63, No. 1. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Aimers, James J., Terry G. Powis, and Jaime J. Awe 2000 Preclassic Round Structures of the Upper Belize River Valley. Latin American Antiquity 11:71–86.Google Scholar
Andrews, Anthony P., and J. Fernando Robles Castellanos 1985 Chichén Itzá and Cobá: An Itzá–Maya Standoff in Early Postclassic Yucatan. In The Lowland Maya Postclassic, edited by Arlen F. Chase and Prudence M. Rice, pp. 62–72. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Andrews, E. Wyllys V 1986 Olmec Jades from Chacsinkin, Yucatán, and Maya Ceramics from La Venta, Tabasco. In Research and Reflections in Archaeology and History: Essays in Honor of Doris Stone, edited by E. Wyllys Andrews V, pp. 11–47. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 57. Tulane University, New Orleans.
Andrews, E. Wyllys V 1990 Early Ceramic History of the Lowland Maya. In Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, edited by Flora S. Clancy and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 1–19. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Angelini, Mary Lee 1998 The Potter's Craft: A Study of Formative Maya Ceramic Technology at K'Axob, Belize (Cuello, Colha, Cerros). Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Boston University, Boston.
Awe, Jaime J. 1992 Dawn in the Land between the Rivers: Formative Occupation at Cahal Pech, Belize and its Implications to Preclassic Developments in the Central Maya Lowlands. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University College, London.
Awe, Jaime J., and Mark D. Campbell 1991 Summary of the 1990 Field Season at Cahal Pech, Belize. Unpublished field report on file, Belize Department of Archaeology, Government of Belize, Belmopan, Belize.
Awe, Jaime J., and Nikolai Grube 2001 La Estela 9 de Cahal Pech: Un Monumento Preclásico del Valle del Río Belice. In Los Investigadores del la Cultura Maya 9, vol. 1, pp. 55–65. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campeche, Mexico.
Awe, Jaime J., and Paul F. Healy 1994 Flakes to Blades? Middle Formative Development of Obsidian Tools in the Upper Belize River Valley. Latin American Antiquity 5:193–205.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime J., and Paul F. Healy 1996 Preclassic Maya of the Belize Valley. Paper presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Awe, Jaime J., Mark D. Campbell, Cassandra R. Bill, and David T. Cheetham 1990 Early Middle Formative Occupation in the Central Maya Lowlands: Recent Evidence from Cahal Pech, Belize. Papers of the Institute of Archaeology 1:1–6.Google Scholar
Ball, Joseph W. 1976 Ceramic Sphere Affiliations of the Barton Ramie Ceramic Complexes. In Prehistoric Pottery Analysis and the Ceramics of Barton Ramie in the Belize Valley, compiled by Carol A. Gifford, pp. 323–330. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 18. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Ball, Joseph W. 1977a The Archaeological Ceramics of Becan, Campeche, Mexico. Middle American Research Institute, Publication 43. Tulane University, New Orleans.
Ball, Joseph W. 1977b The Rise of the Northern Maya Chiefdoms: A Socioprocessual Analysis. In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E.W. Adams, pp. 101–132. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Ball, Joseph W. 1983 Notes on the Distribution of Established Ceramic Types in the Corozal District, Belize. In Archaeological Excavations in Northern Belize, Central America, edited by Raymond V. Sidrys, pp. 203–220. Institute of Archaeology, Monograph XVII. University of California, Los Angeles.
Ball, Joseph W. 1993 Pottery, Potters, Palaces, and Polities: Some Socioeconomic and Political Implications of Late Classic Maya Ceramic Industries. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 243–272. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Ball, Joseph W. 1996 Type-Variety Systematics, Typology, and the Belize Valley Preclassic: Some Working-Paper Observations. Paper presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Ball, Joseph W., and E. Wyllys Andrews V 1975 The Polychrome Pottery of Dzibilchaltún, Yucatán, Mexico: Typology and Archaeological Context. In Archaeological Investigations on the Yucatán Peninsula, edited by Margaret A. Harrison and Robert L. Wauchope, pp. 227–247. Middle American Research Institute, Publication No. 31. Tulane University, New Orleans.
Ball, Joseph W., and Jennifer T. Taschek 1992 Economics and Economies in the Late Classic Maya Lowlands: A Trial Examination of Some Apparent Patterns and Implications. Paper presented at the 1992 Wenner-Gren Foundation Symposium: The Segmentary State and the Classic Lowland Maya: A “New” Model for Ancient Political Organization, Cleveland State University, Cleveland.
Bishop, Ronald L. 1975 Western Lowland Maya Ceramic Trade: An Archaeological Application of Nuclear Chemistry and Geological Data Analysis. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Bishop, Ronald L. 1976 Textural and Chemical Variation in a Numerical Study of Western Lowland Maya Ceramic Trade. In Archaeological Frontiers: Papers on New World High Cultures in Honor of J. Charles Kelley, edited by R.B. Pickering, pp. 1–44. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.
Bishop, Ronald L. 1980 Aspects of Ceramic Compositional Modeling. In Models and Methods in Regional Exchange, edited by Robert E. Fry, pp. 47–65. Papers of the Society for American Archaeology No. 1. Washington, DC.
Bishop, Ronald L. 1986 Neutron Activation Study Verifying Middle Preclassic Period Mars Orange from the Tikal–Yaxhá Area. In Population Growth and Social Complexity: An Examination of Settlement and Environment in the Central Maya Lowlands, edited by Anabel Ford, pp. 167–170. Anthropological Research Papers No. 35. Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, Tempe.
Bolland, O. Nigel 1977 The Maya and the Colonization of Belize in the Nineteenth Century. In Anthropology and History in Yucatán, edited by Grant D. Jones, pp. 69–99. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Brady, James E., Joseph W. Ball, Ronald L. Bishop, Duncan C. Pring, Norman Hammond, and Rupert A. Housley 1998 The Lowland Maya “Protoclassic”: A Reconsideration of its Nature and Significance. Ancient Mesoamerica 9:17–38.Google Scholar
Brown, M. Kathryn 1999 Investigations of Middle Preclassic Public Architecture at the Site of Blackman Eddy, Belize. Available at: http://www.famsi.org.
Brown, M. Kathryn, and James F. Garber 1997 Middle Preclassic Monumental Architecture at the Site of Blackman Eddy. Paper presented at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Nashville, TN.
Brown, M. Kathryn, and James F. Garber 1999 Evidence of Conflict during the Middle Preclassic in the Maya Lowlands: A View from Blackman Eddy, Belize. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1998 Field Season, edited by James F. Garber, pp. 5–21. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Brown, M. Kathryn, James F. Garber, and Christopher J. Hartman 1998 A Middle Preclassic Mask, Triadic Architectural Arrangement, and Early Ritual Deposits at Blackman Eddy: Implications for Social Complexity during the Middle Preclassic. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1997 Field Season, edited by James F. Garber, pp. 33–48. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Brown, M. Kathryn, James F. Garber, and Christopher J. Hartman 1999 Middle Preclassic Ritual Behavior in the Maya Lowlands: An Example from the Site of Blackman Eddy, Belize. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1998 Field Season, edited by James F. Garber, pp. 41–67. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. 1994 Ethnic Groups and Political Development in Ancient Mexico. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 89–102. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M., and John W. Fox (editors) 1994 Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Byland, Bruce E., and John M.D. Pohl 1994 Political Factions in the Transition from Classic to Postclassic in the Mixteca Alta. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 117–126. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Campbell, Lyle, and Terrence Kaufman 1976 A Linguistic Look at the Olmecs. American Antiquity 41:80–89.Google Scholar
Carneiro, Robert L. 1981 The Chiefdom: Precursor of the State. In The Transition to Statehood in the New World, edited by Grant D. Jones and Robert R. Kautz, pp. 37–79. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Carneiro, Robert L. 1991 The Nature of the Chiefdom as Revealed by Evidence from the Cauca Valley of Colombia. In Profiles in Cultural Evolution: Papers from a Conference in Honor of Elman R. Service, edited by A. Terry Rambo and Kathleen Gillogly, pp. 167–190. Anthropological Papers of the Museum of Anthropology No. 85. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Case, Robert P. 1982 Type-Variety Analysis and the Protoclassic Ceramics of El Pozito, Belize: A Critical Review. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, San Diego State University, San Diego.
Chase, Arlen F., and Diane Z. Chase 1987 Putting Together the Pieces: Maya Pottery of Northern Belize and Central Petén, Guatemala. In Maya Ceramics: Papers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference, edited by Prudence M. Rice and Robert J. Sharer, pp. 47–72. BAR International Series No. 345. British Archaeological Records, Oxford.
Cheetham, David T. 1995 Excavations of Structure B-4, Cahal Pech, Belize: 1994 Operations. In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1994 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 18–44. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 10. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Cheetham, David T. 1996 Reconstruction of the Formative Period Site Core of Cahal Pech, Belize. In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1995 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 1–33. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 12. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Cheetham, David T. 1998 Interregional Interaction, Symbol Emulation, and the Emergence of Socio-Political Inequality in the Central Maya Lowlands. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, University of British Columbia.
Cheetham, David T. 2001 Cunil: A Pre-Mamom Horizon in the Southern Maya Lowlands. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Cheetham, David T., and Jaime J. Awe 1996 The Early Formative Cunil Ceramic Complex at Cahal Pech, Belize. Paper presented at the 61st Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Cheetham, David T., and Jaime J. Awe 2001 The Cunil Ceramic Complex at Cahal Pech, Belize. Ms on file, Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada.
Clark, John E., Richard D. Hansen, and Tomás Pérez Suárez 2000 La Zona Maya en el Preclásico. In Historia Antigua de México Vol. I: El México Antiguo, sus Áreas Culturales, los Orígenes y el Horizonte Preclásico, edited by Linda Manzanilla and Leonardo López Luján, pp. 437–510. Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico, DF.
Coe, Michael D. 1962 Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. 1st ed. Thames and Hudson, London.
Coe, William R., and Michael D. Coe 1956 Excavations at Nohoch Ek, British Honduras. American Antiquity 21:370–382.Google Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick 1963 Ceramic Research at Tikal, Guatemala. Ceramica de Cultura Maya 3:34–42.Google Scholar
Cyphers Guillén, Ann 1992 Chalcatzingo, Morelos: Estudio de Cerámica y Sociedad. Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico, DF.
Damon, P.E., and J.I. Jirikowic 1992 Solar Forcing of Global Climate Change? In Radiocarbon after Four Decades: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, edited by R.E. Taylor, A. Long, and R. Kra, pp. 177–179. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Demarest, Arthur A. 1989 The Olmec and the Rise of Civilization in Eastern Mesoamerica. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 303–344. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Drennan, Robert D. 1976 Fabrica San José and Middle Formative Society in the Valley of Oaxaca. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology No. 8. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Farriss, Nancy M. 1984 Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Fash, William L., Jr. 1982 A Middle Formative Cemetery from Copán, Honduras. Paper presented at the 81st Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, Washington, DC.
Fash, William L., Jr. 1991 Scribes, Warriors, and Kings: The City of Copán and the Ancient Maya. Thames and Hudson, London.
Flannery, Kent V., and Joyce Marcus 1994 Early Formative Pottery of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico. Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology No. 27. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Flannery, Kent V., and Joyce Marcus 2000 Formative Mexican Chiefdoms and the Myth of the “Mother Culture.” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 19:1–37.Google Scholar
Forsyth, Donald W. 1989 The Ceramics of El Mirador, Petén, Guatemala. Papers No. 46. New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT.
Freidel, David A. 1986 Maya Warfare: An Example of Peer Polity Interaction. In Peer Polity Interaction and Socio-political Change, edited by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry, pp. 93–108. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Freidel, David A., and Charles Suhler 1998 Life and Death in a Maya War Zone. Archaeology 51:28–34.Google Scholar
Fry, Robert E. 1979 The Economics of Pottery at Tikal, Guatemala: Models of Exchange for Serving Vessels. American Antiquity 44:494–512.Google Scholar
Fry, Robert E., and S.C. Cox 1974 The Structure of Ceramic Exchange at Tikal, Guatemala. World Archaeology 6:209–225.Google Scholar
Garber, James F. (editor) 1997 The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1996 Field Season. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Garber, James F. (editor) 1998 The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1997 Field Season. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Garber, James F. (editor) 1999 The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1998 Field Season. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Garber, James F., M. Kathryn Brown, and Christopher J. Hartman 1998 Middle Preclassic Public Architecture: The Blackman Eddy Example. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1997 Field Season, edited by James F. Garber, pp. 5–32. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Garber, James F., M. Kathryn Brown, and Christopher J. Hartman (editors) 2002 The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 2001 Field Season. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Garber, James F., Christopher J. Hartman, and M. Kathryn Brown 2002 The Kanocha Phase (1200–850 b.c.) on Structure B1: Results of the 2001 Field Season at Blackman Eddy. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 2001 Field Season, edited by James F. Garber, M. Kathryn Brown, and Christopher J. Hartman, pp. 42–75. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Gifford, James C. 1965 Ceramics. In Prehistoric Maya Settlements in the Belize Valley, edited by Gordon R. Willey, William R. Bullard, Jr., John B. Glass, and James C. Gifford, pp. 319–390. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 54. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Gifford, James C. 1970 The Earliest and Other Intrusive Population Elements at Barton Ramie May Have Come from Central America. Ceramica de Cultura Maya 6:1–10.Google Scholar
Gifford, James C. 1974 Recent Thought concerning the Interpretation of Maya Prehistory. In Mesoamerican Archaeology, New Approaches, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 77–98. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Gifford, James C. 1976 Prehistoric Pottery Analysis and the Ceramics of Barton Ramie in the Belize Valley. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 18. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Graham, Elizabeth 1994 The Highlands of the Lowlands: Environment and Archaeology in the Stann Creek District, Belize, Central America. Monographs in World Archaeology No. 19. Prehistory Press, Madison, WI.
Grove, David C. 1989 Olmec: What's in a Name? In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 8–14. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Grove, David C. 1997 Olmec Archaeology: A Half Century of Research and Its Accomplishments. Journal of World Prehistory 11:51–101.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1999 The Genesis of Hierarchy: Mortuary and Offertory Ritual in the Pre-Classic at Cuello, Belize. In Social Patterns in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica, edited by David C. Grove and Rosemary A. Joyce, pp. 49–66. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC.
Hartman, Christopher J., James F. Garber, and M. Kathryn Brown 2002 The Early Facet Jenny Creek Phase on Structure B1: Results of the 2001 Field Season at Blackman Eddy. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 2001 Field Season, edited by James F. Garber, M. Kathryn Brown, and Christopher J. Hartman, pp. 5–41. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.
Healy, Paul F. 1990 Excavations at Pacbitún, Belize: Preliminary Report on the 1986 and 1987 Investigations. Journal of Field Archaeology 17:247–262.Google Scholar
Healy, Paul F. 1999 Preclassic Maya of the Belize Valley: Some Observations (1999). In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1996 and 1997 Field Seasons, edited by Paul F. Healy, pp. 83–102. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 13. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Healy, Paul F. (editor) 1999 Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1996 and 1997 Field Seasons. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 13. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Healy, Paul F., and Jaime J. Awe 1995a Preclassic Maya of the Belize Valley: 1994–1995 Project Research Objectives. In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1994 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 1–17. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 10. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Healy, Paul F., and Jaime J. Awe 1995b Radiocarbon Dates from Cahal Pech, Belize: Results from the 1994 Field Season. In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1994 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 198–215. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 10. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Healy, Paul F., and Jaime J. Awe 1996 The Uxbenca Jade: A Middle Preclassic Jade Spoon from Belize? In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1995 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 175–180. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 12. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Healy, Paul F., and Jaime J. Awe (editors) 1995 Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1994 Field Season. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 10. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Healy, Paul F., and Jaime J. Awe (editors) 1996 Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1995 Field Season. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 12. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Hermes Cifuentes, Bernard 1993 Dos reportes del laboratorio cerámico: Vasijas miniatura y adiciones tipológicas para la época preclásica. In Tikal y Uaxactún en el Preclásico, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Juan Antonio Valdés, pp. 47–52. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, DF.
Hermes Cifuentes, Bernard 1999 La Cerámica y otro tipo de evidencia anterior al Período Clásico en Topoxté, Petén. In XII Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueologicas en Guatemala, 1998, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte, Héctor L. Escobedo, and Ana Claudia Monzón de Suasnávar, pp. 3–49. Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes, Instituto de Antropología e Historia, Asociacion Tikal, Guatemala, Guatemala.
Hohmann, Bobbi M., and Terry G. Powis 1996 The 1995 Excavations at Pacbitún, Belize: Investigations of the Middle Formative Occupation in Plaza B. In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1995 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 98–127. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 12. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Houston, Stephen D., John Robertson, and David Stuart 2000 The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions. Current Anthropology 41:321–356.Google Scholar
Iceland, Harry B. 1997 The Preceramic Origins of the Maya: The Results of the Colha Preceramic Project in Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.
Iceland, Harry B. 2001 The Preceramic to Early Middle Preclassic Transition in Northern Belize. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Jiménez Moreno, Wigberto 1942 El Enigma de los Olmecas. Cuadernos Americanos 1:113–145.Google Scholar
Joesink-Mandeville, LeRoy V. 1970 The Comparative Cultural Stratigraphy of Formative Complexes in the Maya Area: A Reappraisal in Light of New Evidence from Dzibilchaltún, Yucatan. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, New Orleans.
Joesink-Mandeville, LeRoy V. 1971 The Olmec Gulf Coast Region and Northwestern Yucatán during the Middle Formative. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southwestern Anthropological Association, Tucson.
Joesink-Mandeville, LeRoy V. 1972 Concerning Olmec–Maya Relationships: A Correlation of Linguistical Evidence with Archaeological Ceramics. Paper presented at the 37th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Miami Beach.
Joesink-Mandeville, LeRoy V. 1977 Olmec–Maya Relationships: A Correlation of Linguistic Evidence with Archaeological Ceramics. Journal of New World Archaeology 2:30–39.Google Scholar
Joesink-Mandeville, LeRoy V., and Sylvia Meluzin 1976 Concerning Olmec–Maya Relationships: Olmec Influence in Yucatan. In Origins of Religious Art and Iconography in Preclassic Mesoamerica, edited by Henry B. Nicholson, pp. 89–105. UCLA Latin American Studies Center and Ethnic Arts Council of Los Angeles, Los Angeles.
Jones, Grant D. 1977 Levels of Settlement Alliance among the San Pedro Maya of Western Belize and Eastern Petén. In Anthropology and History in Yucatán, edited by Grant D. Jones, pp. 139–189. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Jones, Grant D. 1982 Agriculture and Trade in the Colonial Period Southern Maya Lowlands. In Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston, edited by Kent V. Flannery, pp. 275–293. Academic Press, New York.
Jones, Grant D. 1989 Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Kosakowsky, Laura J. 1983 Intrasite Variability of the Formative Ceramics from Cuello, Belize: An Analysis of Form and Function. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Kosakowsky, Laura J. 1987 Preclassic Maya Pottery at Cuello, Belize. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona No. 47. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Kosakowsky, Laura J., and Duncan C. Pring 1998 The Ceramics of Cuello, Belize—A New Evaluation. Ancient Mesoamerica 9:55–66.Google Scholar
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Vilma Fialko 1993a El Preclásico de Mundo Perdido: Algunos Aportes sobre los Orígenes de Tikal. In Tikal y Uaxactún en el Preclásico, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Juan Antonio Valdés, pp. 9–46. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, DF.
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Vilma Fialko 1993b Análisis Cerámico de Tres Depósitos Problemáticos de Fase Eb, Mundo Perdido, Tikal. In Tikal y Uaxactún en el Preclásico, edited by Juan Pedro Laporte and Juan Antonio Valdés, pp. 53–69. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, DF.
Laporte, Juan Pedro, and Juan Antonio Valdés (editors) 1993 Tikal y Uaxactún en el Preclásico. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico, DF.
LeCount, Lisa J. 1996 Pottery and Power: Feasting, Gifting, and Displaying Wealth among the Late and Terminal Classic Lowland Maya. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.
Lee, Thomas A., Jr. 1989 Chiapas and the Olmec. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 198–226. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Longyear, John M., III 1952 Copán Ceramics, A Study of Southeastern Maya Pottery. Publication 597. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Lowe, Gareth W. 1971 The Civilizational Consequences of Varying Degrees of Agricultural and Ceramic Dependence within the Basic Ecosystems of Mesoamerica. In Observations on the Emergence of Civilization in the Americas, edited by Robert F. Heizer and John A. Graham, pp. 212–248. Contributions No. 11. University of California Archaeological Research Facility, University of California, Berkeley.
Lowe, Gareth W. 1977 The Mixe–Zoque as Competing Neighbors of the Early Lowland Maya. In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E.W. Adams, pp. 197–248. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Lowe, Gareth W. 1978 Eastern Mesoamerica. In Chronologies in New World Archaeology, edited by R. Ervin Taylor and Clement Woodward Meighan, pp. 331–393. Academic Press, New York.
Lowe, Gareth W. 1989 The Heartland Olmec: Evolution of Material Culture. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 33–67. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lowe, Gareth W., and J. Alden Mason 1965 Archaeological Survey of the Chiapas Coast, Highlands, and Upper Grijalva Basin. In Archaeology of Southern Mesoamerica, edited by Gordon R. Willey, pp. 195–235. Handbook of Middle American Indians, Vol. 2. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Marcus, Joyce, and Kent V. Flannery 1996 Zapotec Civilization: How Urban Society Evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley. Thames and Hudson, New York.
McAnany, Patricia A., and Sandra López Varela 1999 Re-creating the Formative Maya Village of K'axob: Chronology, Ceramic Complexes, and Ancestors in Architectural Context. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:147–168.Google Scholar
Neff, Hector, James W. Cogswell, Laura J. Kosakowsky, Francisco Estrada Belli, and Frederick J. Bove 1999 A New Perspective on the Relationships among Cream Paste Ceramic Traditions of Southeastern Mesoamerica. Latin American Antiquity 10:281–299.Google Scholar
Pohl, Mary E.D., and John M.D. Pohl 1994 Cycles of Conflict: Political Factionalism in the Maya Lowlands. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 138–157. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Powis, Terry G., and Bobbi M. Hohmann 1995 From Private Household to Public Ceremony: Middle Formative Occupation at the Tolok Group, Cahal Pech, Belize. In Belize Valley Preclassic Maya Project: Report on the 1994 Season, edited by Paul F. Healy and Jaime J. Awe, pp. 45–94. Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. 10. Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario.
Pring, Duncan C. 1977 The Preclassic Ceramics of Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University of London, London.
Puleston, Dennis E., and Olga S. Puleston 1971 An Ecological Approach to the Origins of Maya Civilization. Archaeology 24:330–337.Google Scholar
Rathje, William L., David A. Gregory, and Frederick M. Wiseman 1978 Trade Models and Archaeological Problems: Classic Maya Examples. In Mesoamerican Communication Routes and Cultural Contacts, edited by Thomas A. Lee, Jr. and Carlos Navarrete, pp. 147–175. Papers No. 40. New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University, Provo.
Rathje, William L., Jeremy A. Sabloff, and David A. Gregory 1973 El Descubrimiento de un Jade Olmeca en la Isla de Cozumel, Quintana Roo, México. In Estudios de Cultura Maya Vol. IX, edited by Alberto Ruz Lhuillier, pp. 85–91. Centro de Estudios Mayas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico, DF.
Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn 1996 Archaeology–Theory, Methods, and Practice. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Rice, Prudence M. 1976 Rethinking the Ware Concept. American Antiquity 41:538–543.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M. 1979 Ceramic and Non-Ceramic Artifacts of Lakes Yaxhá–Sacnab, El Petén, Guatemala. Part I, The Ceramics: Section A. Ceramica de Cultura Maya 10:1–36.Google Scholar
Rice, Prudence M. 1985 Maya Pottery Techniques and Technology. In Ancient Technology to Modern Science, edited by W.D. Kingery, pp. 113–132. American Ceramic Society, Columbus.
Rice, Prudence M. 1987 Lowland Maya Pottery Production in the Late Classic Period. In Maya Ceramics: Papers from the 1985 Maya Ceramic Conference, Part II, edited by Prudence M. Rice and Robert J. Sharer, pp. 525–543. BAR International Series No. 345. British Archaeological Records, Oxford.
Robertson-Freidel, Robin A. 1980 The Ceramics from Cerros: A Late Preclassic Site in Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Robles Castellanos, J. Fernando, and Anthony P. Andrews 1986 A Review and Synthesis of Recent Postclassic Archaeology in Northern Yucatan. In Late Lowland Maya Civilization, edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and W. Wyllys Andrews V, pp. 53–98. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Schele, Linda, and David A. Freidel 1990 A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. William Morrow and Company, New York.
Scholes, France V., and J. Eric S. Thompson 1977 The Francisco Pérez Probanza of 1654–1656 and the Matrícula of Tipu (Belize). In Anthropology and History in Yucatán, edited by Grant D. Jones, pp. 43–68. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Sharer, Robert J. 1976 The Jenney Creek Ceramic Complex at Barton Ramie. In Prehistoric Pottery Analysis and the Ceramics of Barton Ramie in the Belize Valley, compiled by Carol A. Gifford, pp. 61–83. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol 18. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Sharer, Robert J. 1978 The Prehistory of Chalchuapa, El Salvador: Pottery and Conclusions. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
Sharer, Robert J. 1989 The Olmec and the Southeast Periphery of Mesoamerica. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 247–271. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Sharer, Robert J., and Arlen F. Chase 1976 New Town Ceramic Complex. In Prehistoric Pottery Analysis and the Ceramics of Barton Ramie in the Belize Valley, compiled by Carol A. Gifford, pp. 288–314. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol 18. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Sharer, Robert J., and James C. Gifford 1970 Preclassic Ceramics from Chalchuapa, El Salvador, and their Relationships with the Lowland Maya. American Antiquity 35:441–462.Google Scholar
Smith, A. Ledyard 1982 Excavations at Seibal, Department of Petén, Guatemala: Major Architecture and Caches. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol 15, No. 1. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Smith, Robert E. 1955 Ceramic Sequence at Uaxactún, Guatemala. Publication 20. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans.
Smith, Robert E., and James C. Gifford 1966 Maya Ceramic Varieties, Types, and Wares at Uaxactún: Supplement to Ceramic Sequence at Uaxactún, Guatemala. In Middle American Research Records, vol. III, pp. 125–174. Publication No. 28. Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University, New Orleans.
Strelow, Duane, and Lisa J. LeCount 2001 Regional Interaction in the Formative Southern Maya Lowlands: Evidence of Olmecoid Stylistic Motifs in a Cunil Ceramic Assemblage from Xunantunich, Belize. Poster displayed at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.
Taschek, Jennifer T., and Joseph W. Ball 1999 Las Ruinas de Arenal, Belize—Preliminary Report on a Subregional Major Center in the Western Belize Valley (1991–1992 Excavations). Ancient Mesoamerica 10:215–235.Google Scholar
Taylor, R.E. 1997 Radiocarbon Dating. In Chronometric Dating in Archaeology, edited by R.E. Taylor and Martin J. Aitken, pp. 65–96. Plenum Press, New York.
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1939 Excavations at San José, British Honduras. Publication 506. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1942 Late Ceramic Horizons at Benque Viejo, British Honduras. Publication 528, No. 35. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1954 The Rise and Fall of Maya Civilization. 1st ed. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1972 The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters since Columbus. The Benex Press, Belize City.
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1977 A Proposal for Constituting a Maya Subgroup, Cultural and Linguistic, in the Petén and Adjacent Regions. In Anthropology and History in Yucatán, edited by Grant D. Jones, pp. 3–42. University of Texas Press, Austin.
Tolstoy, Paul 1989 Western Mesoamerica and the Olmec. In Regional Perspectives on the Olmec, edited by Robert J. Sharer and David C. Grove, pp. 275–303. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Valdez, Fred, Jr. 1987 The Prehistoric Ceramics of Colha, Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Viel, René, and Jay Hall 2000 Factional Competition at Copán, Honduras. Paper presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Philadelphia.
Webster, David L. 1977 Warfare and the Evolution of Maya Civilization. In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E.W. Adams, pp. 335–372. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.
Webster, David L. 2000 The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War. Journal of World Prehistory 14:65–119.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R. 1978 Excavations at Seibal, Department of Petén, Guatemala: Artifacts. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 14, No. 1. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Willey, Gordon R., and William R. Bullard, Jr. 1956 The Melhado Site: A House Mound Group in British Honduras. American Antiquity 22:29–44.Google Scholar
Willey, Gordon R., and James C. Gifford 1961 Pottery of the Holmul I Style from Barton Ramie, British Honduras. In Essays in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology by Samuel K. Lothrop and Others, edited by D.Z. Stone, J.B. Bird, G.F. Ekholm, and G.R. Willey, pp. 152–170. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Willey, Gordon R., William R. Bullard_Jr., John B. Glass, and James C. Gifford 1965 Prehistoric Maya Settlements in the Belize Valley. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 54. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.