Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T16:18:58.909Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

APPLYING REGIONAL, CONTEXTUAL, ETHNOHISTORIC, AND ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACHES FOR UNDERSTANDING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PERI-ABANDONMENT DEPOSITS IN WESTERN BELIZE

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2020

Jaime J. Awe Open the ORCID record for Jaime J. Awe [Opens in a new window] ,
Christophe Helmke Open the ORCID record for Christophe Helmke [Opens in a new window] ,
James J. Aimers Open the ORCID record for James J. Aimers [Opens in a new window] ,
Claire E. Ebert ,
W. James Stemp Open the ORCID record for W. James Stemp [Opens in a new window]  and
Julie A. Hoggarth Open the ORCID record for Julie A. Hoggarth [Opens in a new window]
Jaime J. Awe*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, 5 East McConnell Drive, Flagstaff, Arizona86011
Christophe Helmke
Affiliation:
Institute of Cross-cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, Karen Blixens Plads 8, DK-2300, Copenhagen S, Denmark
James J. Aimers
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, State University of New York Geneseo, 1 College Circle, Geneseo, New York14454
Claire E. Ebert
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, 5 East McConnell Drive, Flagstaff, Arizona86011
W. James Stemp
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Criminology, Keene State College, 229 Main Street, Keene, New Hampshire03435
Julie A. Hoggarth
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology and Institute of Archaeology, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97173, Waco, Texas76798
*
E-mail correspondence to: [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The discovery of cultural remains on or above the floors of rooms and courtyards at several Maya sites has been interpreted by some archaeologists as problematic deposits, squatter's refuse, as evidence for feasting, termination rituals, de facto refuse, or rapid abandonment as a result of warfare. Investigations by the Belize Valley Archaeological Reconnaissance Project have recorded similar deposits at several surface and subterranean sites in Western Belize. Our regional, contextual, and methodological approaches for studying these deposits, coupled with ethnohistoric and ethnographic information, provide limited support for the interpretation of these remains as de facto refuse or due to rapid abandonment. Instead, we argue that these deposits are more likely the result of peri-abandonment activities such as propitiation rituals and/or pilgrimages during and after the gradual abandonment of sites in the Belize River Valley.

Type
Special Section: Problematic “On-Floor” Deposits in the Terminal Classic Eastern Maya Lowlands: Implications for the Maya Collapse
Information
Ancient Mesoamerica , Volume 31 , Issue 1 , Spring 2020 , pp. 109 - 126
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press, 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aimers, James J., and Awe, Jaime J. 2020b The Long Goodbye: Problematic Pottery and Pilgrimage at Cahal Pech, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:151–160.Google Scholar
Aimers, James J., Hoggarth, Julie A., and Awe, Jaime J. 2020a Decoding the Archaeological Significance of Problematic Deposits in the Maya Lowlands. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:67–75.Google Scholar
Andrews, E. Wyllys 1970 Balankanche, Throne of Tiger Priest. Middle American Research Institute Publication No. 32. Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Aoyama, Kazuo, and Graham, Elizabeth 2017 Ancient Maya Warfare: Exploring the Significance of Lithic Variation in Maya Weaponry. Ancient Mesoamerica 28:279–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ardren, Traci 2011 Empowered Children in Classic Maya Sacrificial Rites. Childhood in the Past 4:133–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Audet, Carolyn M. 2006 Political Organization in the Belize Valley: Excavations at Baking Pot, Cahal Pech, and Xunantunich. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime J. 1998 The Western Belize Regional Cave Project: Objectives, Context, and Problem Orientation. In The Western Belize Regional Cave Project: A Report of the 1997 Field Season, edited by Awe, Jaime J., pp. 1–22. Department of Anthropology Occasional Paper No. 1. University of New Hampshire, Durham.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime J. 2008 Architectural Manifestations of Power and Prestige: Examples from Classic Period Monumental Architecture at Cahal Pech, Xunantunich and Caracol, Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 5:159–174.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime J., and Helmke, Christophe 2015 The Sword and the Olive Jar: Material Evidence of Seventeenth-Century Maya Spanish Interaction in Central Belize. Ethnohistory 62:333–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Awe, Jaime J., and Helmke, Christophe 2019 Exotics for the Lords and Gods: Lowland Maya Consumption of European Goods along a Spanish Colonial Frontier. In Material Encounters and Indigenous Transformations in the Early Colonial Americas, edited by Hofman, Corinne L. and Keehnen, Floris W.M., pp. 236–260. Koninklijke Brill, Leiden.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime J., Griffith, Cameron, and Gibbs, Sherry A. 2005 Cave Stelae and Megalithic Monuments in Western Belize. In The Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by Brady, James and Prufer, Keith, pp. 223–249. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Awe, Jaime J., Ebert, Claire E., Hoggarth, Julie A., Aimers, James J., Douglas, John, Helmke, Christophe, and Stemp, W. James 2020 The Last Hurrah: Examining the Nature of Peri-Abandonment Deposits and Activities at Cahal Pech, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:175–187.Google Scholar
Ball, Joseph, and Ladd, John M. 1992 Ceramics. In Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan, edited by Coggins, Clemency, pp. 191–234. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Brady, James E. 1989 Investigation of Maya Ritual Cave Use with Special Reference to Naj Tunich, Peten, Guatemala. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Peterson, Polly A. 2008 Re-Envisioning Ancient Maya Ritual Assemblages. In: Religion, Archaeology, and the Material World, edited by Fogelin, Lars, pp. 78–96. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Paper No. 36. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Braswell, Geoff E., Gunn, Joel D., Carrasco, Maria del Rosario Dominguez, Folan, William J., Fletcher, Laraine A., López, Abel Morales, and Glascock, Michael D. 2004 Defining the Terminal Classic at Calakmul, Campeche. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition and Transformation, edited by Demarest, Arthur, Rice, Prudent M. and Rice, Don S., pp. 162–194. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Brown, Linda A. 2002 The Structure of Ritual Practice: An Ethnoarchaeological Exploration of Activity Areas at Rural Community Shrines in the Maya Highlands. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado, Denver.Google Scholar
Bunzel, Ruth 1952 Chichicastenango: A Guatemalan Village. J.J. Augustine Publisher, Locust Valley.Google Scholar
Burke, Chrissina C., Tappan, Katie K., Wisner, Gavin B., Hoggarth, Julie A., and Awe, Jaime J. 2020 To Eat, Discard, or Venerate: Faunal Remains as Proxy for Human Behaviors in Lowland Maya Peri-Abandonment Deposits. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:127–137.Google Scholar
Charnay, Desire 1887 The Ancient Cities of the New World: Being Travels and Explorations in Mexico and Central America from 1857–1882. Translated by Gonino, J. and Conant, Helen S.. Chapman and Hall, London.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 2004 Terminal Classic Refuse-Linked Ceramic and the Maya ‘Collapse’: De Facto Refuse at Caracol, Belize. In The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands, edited by Demarest, Arthur, Rice, Prudence D., and Rice, Don S., pp. 342–366. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 2020 Final Moments: Contextualizing On-Floor Archaeological Materials from Caracol, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:77–87.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 1998 Architectural Context of Caches, Burials and Other Ritual Activities. In Function and Meaning in Classic Maya Architecture, edited by Houston, Stephen, pp. 299–332. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 2000 Inferences about Abandonment: Maya Household Archaeology and Caracol, Belize. Mayab 13:67–77.Google Scholar
Chase, Diane Z., and Chase, Arlen F. 2003 Texts and Contexts in Classic Maya Warfare: A Brief Consideration of Epigraphy and Archaeology at Caracol, Belize. In Ancient Mesoamerican Warfare, edited by Kathryn Brown, M. and Stanton, Travis W., pp. 171–188. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek.Google Scholar
Clayton, Sarah C., Driver, W. David, and Kosakowsky, Laura J. 2005 Rubbish or Ritual? Contextualizing a Terminal Classic Problematic Deposit at Blue Creek, Belize: A Response to “Public Architecture, Ritual, and Temporal Dynamics at the Maya Center of Blue Creek, Belize” by Thomas H. Guderjan. Ancient Mesoamerica 16:119–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clendinnen, Inga 2003 Ambivalent Conquest: Maya and Spaniard in the Yucatan 1517–1570. Cambridge University Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, William R. 1982 Tikal Report No. 12: Introduction to the Archaeology of Tikal, Guatemala. University Museum Monograph 46. University of Pennsylvania, Philadephia.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency C. (editor) 1992 Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency C., and Ladd, John M. 1992 Wooden Artifacts. In Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan, edited by Coggins, Clemency, pp. 235–344. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Coggins, Clemency C., and Shane, Orrin C. III 1984 Cenote of Sacrifice: Treasures from the Sacred Well at Chichen Itza. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Cook, Garrett 1986 Quichean Folk Theology and Southern Maya Supernaturalism. In Symbol and Meaning Beyond the Closed Community: Essays in Mesoamerican Ideas, Vol. 1, edited by Gossen, Gary H., pp. 139–153. Studies on Culture and Society 1. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York, Albany.Google Scholar
Davis, Jeffrey Britt 2018 Scattered, Smothered, and Covered. The Cultural Significance of Terminal Classic Deposits at Baking Pot, Belize. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.Google Scholar
de Anda, Guillermo, Tiesler, Vera, and Zabala, Pilar 2004 Cenotes, espacios sagrados y la práctica del sacrificio humano en Yucatán. In Los Investigadores de la Cultura Maya 12, Tomo 2, pp. 376–386. Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Campeche.Google Scholar
Ebert, Claire E., Hoggarth, Julie A., Awe, Jaime J., Culleton, Brendan, and Kennett, Douglas 2019 The Role of Diet in Resilience and Vulnerability to Climate Change: Stable Isotope Evidence from the Ancient Maya Community at Cahal Pech, Belize. Current Anthropology 60:589–601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gann, Thomas 1925 Mystery Cities. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.Google Scholar
Gann, Thomas 1971 In an Unknown Land. Books for Libraries Press, Freeport.Google Scholar
Garber, James F., Brown, M. Kathryn, and Hartman, Christopher J. 1998 Middle Preclassic Public Architecture: The Blackman Eddy Example. In The Belize Valley Archaeology Project: Results of the 1997 Field Season, edited by James F., Garber, pp. 5–33. Southwest Texas State University, San Marcos.Google Scholar
Harrison, Peter 1999 The Lords of Tikal: Rulers of an Ancient Maya City. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Hayden, Brian, and Cannon, Aubrey 1984 The Structure of Material Systems: Ethnoarchaeology in the Maya Highlands. Society for American Archaeology Papers, No. 3. Society for American Archaeology, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe G.B. 2001 The Last Supper: Competitive Feasting and the Terminal Classic Moulded-Carved Ceramic Tradition in the Central Maya Lowlands. Unpublished Master's thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University College, London.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe G.B. 2003 The 2002 Season Investigations at Pook's Hill, Belize. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 14:119–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmke, Christophe G.B. 2006a A Summary of the 1999–2002 Seasons of Archaeological Investigations at Pook's Hill, Cayo District, Belize. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 3:173–191.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe G.B. 2006b Recent Investigations into Ancient Maya Domestic and Ritual Activities at Pook's Hill, Belize. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 17:77–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helmke, Christophe G.B. 2009 Ancient Maya Cave Usage as Attested in the Glyphic Corpus of the Maya Lowlands and the Caves of the Roaring Creek Valley, Belize. Ph.D. dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University of London, London.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, and Reents-Budet, Dorie 2008 A Terminal Classic Molded-Carved Ceramic Type of the Eastern Maya Lowlands. Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology 5:37–49.Google Scholar
Helmke, Christophe, Awe, Jaime J., and Grube, Nikolai 2010 Carved Monuments and Inscriptions of Xunantunich: Implications for Terminal Classic Sociopolitical Relationships in the Belize Valley. In Classic Maya Provincial Politics: Xunantunich and Its Hinterlands, edited by LeCount, Lisa J. and Yaeger, Jason, pp. 97–121. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Hoggarth, Julie A., Britt Davis, J., Awe, Jaime J., and Helmke, Christophe 2020 Reconstructing the Formation of Peri-Abandonment Deposits at Baking Pot, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:139–149.Google Scholar
Inomata, Takeshi, and Webb, Ronal W. (editors) 2003 The Archaeology of Settlement Abandonment in Middle America. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Ishihara, Reiko 2008 Rising Clouds, Blowing Winds: Late Classic Maya Rain Rituals in the Main Chasm, Aguateca, Guatemala. World Archaeology 40:169–189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keller, Angela H. 2010 The Social Construction of Roads at Xunantunich, from Design to Abandonment. In Classic Maya Provincial Politics: Xunantunich and Its Hinterlands, edited by LeCount, Lisa J. and Yaeger, Jason, pp. 184–208. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Koenig, Emma N. 2014 Terminal Ritual Deposits and Abandonment Processes at Aguacate Uno, Belize. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Kubler, George 1985 Pre-Columbian Pilgrimages in Mesoamerica. In Fourth Palenque Round Table, 1980, edited by Benson, Elizabeth P., pp. 313–316. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.Google Scholar
LaFarge, Oliver 1947 Santa Eulalia: The Religion of a Cuchumatan Indian Town. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Lamoureux-St-Hilaire, Maxime, Macrae, Scott, McCane, Carmen A., Parker, Evan A., and Iannone, Gyles 2015 The Last Groups Standing: Living Abandonment at the Ancient Maya Center of Minanha, Belize. Latin American Antiquity 26:550–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
López de Cogolludo, Diego 1688 Historia de Yucathan. Juan García Infanzón, Madrid.Google Scholar
MacKie, Euan 1961 New Light on the End of the Classic Maya Culture at Benque Viejo, British Honduras. American Antiquity 27:216–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKie, Euan 1985 Excavations at Xunantunich and Pomona, Belize, in 1959–1960. BAR International Series No. 251. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Martínez Marín, Carlos 1972 Santuarios y peregrinaciones en el México prehispánico. In Religión en mesoamérica, XII mesa redonda, edited by King, Jaime Litvak and Tejero, Noemi Castillo, pp. 161–178. Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología, Mexico City.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia 2010 Ancestral Maya Economies in Archaeological Perspective. Cambridge University Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGee, R. Jon 1990 Life, Ritual, and Religion Among the Lacandon Maya. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont.Google Scholar
McGee, R. Jon 2005 Ancient Ruins and Modern Maya: The Role of Yaxchilan in Non-Christian Lacandon Maya Beliefs. Mesoamerican Voices 2:63–76.Google Scholar
Miller, Mary, and Taube, Karl 1993 The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Mirro, Michael J. 2007 The Political Appropriation of Caves in the Upper Belize Valley. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, California State University, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Moholy-Nagy, Hattula 1997 Middens, Construction Fill, and Offerings: Evidence for the Organization of Classic Period Craft Production at Tikal, Guatemala. Journal of Field Archaeology 24:293–313.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T. 2002 Ancient Maya Ritual Cave Unitilaztion: A Paleoethnobotanical Perspective. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T. 2005 Plants and Caves in Ancient Maya Society. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Prufer, Keith M. and Brady, James E., pp. 167–186. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Morehart, Christopher T. 2007 Continued Paleoethnobotanical Research at Pook's Hill, Belize. In The Belize Valley Archaeological Reconnaissance Project: A Report of the 2006 Field Season, edited by Helmke, Christophe G. B. and Awe, Jaime J., pp. 119–133. Belize Institute of Archaeology, National Institute of Culture and History, Belmopan.Google Scholar
Moyes, Holley 2001 The Cave as a Cosmogram: The Use of GIS in an Intrasite Spatial Analysis of The Main Chamber of Actun Tunichil Muknal, A Maya Ceremonial Cave in Western Belize. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton.Google Scholar
Moyes, Holley 2006 The Sacred Landscape as a Political Resource: A Case Study of Ancient Maya Cave Use at Chechem Ha Cave, Belize, Central America. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York, Buffalo.Google Scholar
Moyes, Holley, and Awe, Jaime J. 2020 Sacrifice of the Maize God: Re-creating Creation in the Main Chamber of Actun Tunichil Muknal, Belize. In The Myths of the Popol Vuh in Cosmology and Practice, edited by Moyes, Holley and Christenson, Allen. University Press of Colorado, Boulder. In press.Google Scholar
Moyes, Holley, Awe, Jaime J., Webster, James, and Brooks, George 2009 The Ancient Maya Drought Cult: Late Classic Cave Use in Belize. Latin American Antiquity 20:175–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Newman, Sarah E. 2015 Rethinking Refuse: A History of Maya Trash. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Brown University, Providence.Google Scholar
Newman, Sarah E. 2018 Rubbish, Reuse, and Ritual at the Ancient Maya Site of El Zotz, Guatemala. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 26:806–843.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owens, Vanessa A. 2002 An Investigation of Classic Maya Cave Mortuary Practices at Barton Creek Cave, Belize. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins.Google Scholar
Palka, Joel W. 2003 Social Status and Differential Processes of Abandonment at the Classic Maya Center of Dos Pilas, Peten, Guatemala. In The Archaeology of Settlement Abandonment in Middle America, edited by Inomata, Takeshi and Webb, Ronald W., pp. 121–133. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Palka, Joel W. 2005 Rock Paintings and Lacandon Maya Sacred Landscapes. The PARI Journal 5:1–7.Google Scholar
Palka, Joel W. 2014 Maya Pilgrimage to Ritual Landscapes: Insights from Archaeology, History, and Ethnography. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Patel, Shankari U. 2005 Caves and Pilgrimage on Cozumel Island. In Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya Religion in the Cave Context, edited by Brady, James E. and Prufer, Keith M., pp. 91–112. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Patel, Shankari U. 2012 Journey to the East: Pilgrimage, Politics, and Gender in Postclassic Mexico. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Riverside.Google Scholar
Patel, Shankari U. 2016 Pilgrimage to the Island of Cozumel. In The Role of Archaeoastronomy in the Maya World: The Case Study of the Island of Cozumel, pp. 149–157. UNESCO, Paris, and the UNESCO Office, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1974 Excavations at Actun Polbilche. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1979 Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 1. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1982 Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 2. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David M. 1990 Excavations at Altun Ha, Belize, 1964–1970, Volume 3. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.Google Scholar
Pendergast, David, and Graham, Elizabeth 1981 Fighting a Looting Battle: Xunantunich, Belize. Archaeology 34:12–19.Google Scholar
Peterson, Polly A. 2006 Ancient Maya Ritual Cave Use in the Sibun Valley, Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Boston University, Boston.Google Scholar
Pohl, Mary 1983 Maya Ritual Faunas: Vertebrate Remains from Burials, Caches, Caves, and Cenotes in the Maya Lowlands. In Civilization in the Ancient Americas: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Leventhal, Richard M. and Kolata, Alan L., pp. 55–103. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Ringle, William, Negrón, Tomás Gallareta, and Bey, George J. 1998 The Return of Quetzalcoatl: Evidence for the Spread of a World Religion during the Epiclassic Period. Ancient Mesoamerica 9:183–232.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romih, Stanislava 2019 Unleashing the Beast: Evaluating Maya Peri-Abandonment Deposits at Lower Dover within the Context of the Belize River Valley. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff.Google Scholar
Scholes, France V., and Adams, Eleanor B. (editors) 1938 Don Diego Quijada, Alcalde Mayor de Yucatan, 1561–1565. 2 vols. Editorial Porrúa, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Shakespeare, William 1823 The Merchant of Venice. Collins and Hannay, London.Google Scholar
Sheets, Payson D., Ladd, John M., and Bathgate, David 1992 Chipped-Stone Artifacts. In Artifacts from the Cenote of Sacrifice, Chichen Itza, Yucatan, edited by Coggins, Clemency, pp. 153–177. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Sievert, April K. 1992 Maya Ceremonial Specialization: Lithic Tools from the Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza, Yucatan. Monographs in World Archaeology, No. 12. Prehistory Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Stanchly, Norbert 2006 A Preliminary Analysis of the Pook's Hill Vertebrate Faunal Assemblage. In The Belize Valley Archaeological Reconnaissance Project: A Report of the 2005 Field Season, edited by in Helmke, Christophe G. B. and Awe, Jaime J., pp. 93–115. Belize Institute of Archaeology, Belmopan.Google Scholar
Stanton, Travis W., and Magnoni, Aline (editors) 2008 Ruins of the Past: The Use and Perception of Abandoned Structures in the Maya Lowlands. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Stemp, W. James, and Awe, Jaime J. 2020 Point Counter Point: Interpreting Chipped Chert Bifaces in Terminal Classic “Problematic” On-Floor Deposits from Structures A2 and A3 at Cahal Pech, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 31:161–174.Google Scholar
Stemp, W. James, Helmke, Christophe G.B., and Awe, Jaime J. 2010 Evidence for Maya Household Subsistence and Domestic Activities: Use-Wear Analysis of the Chipped Chert Assemblage from Pook's Hill, Belize. Journal of Field Archaeology 35:217–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stemp, W. James, Brown, Megan P., and Awe, Jaime J. 2019 Ritual Economy and Ancient Maya Blood-Letting: Obsidian Blades from Actun Uayazba Kab (Handprint Cave), Belize. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 53:304–324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoddard, Robert H., and Morinis, Alan (editors) 1997 Sacred Places, Sacred Spaces: The Geography of Pilgrimages. Geoscience and Man No. 34. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Lauren A., Hageman, Jon B., Houk, Brett A., Hughbanks, Paul, and Valdez, Fred Jr. 2008 Structure Abandonment and Landscape Transformation: Examples from the Three Rivers Region. In Ruins of the Past: The Use and Perception of Abandoned Structures in the Maya Lowlands, edited by Stanton, Travis W. and Magnoni, Aline, pp. 91–111. University Press of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
Taschek, Jennifer T., and Ball, Joseph W. 2003 Nohoch Ek Revisited: The Minor Center as Manor. Latin American Antiquity 14:371–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taube, Karl, Saturno, William A., Stuart, David, and Hurst, Heather 2010 The Murals of San Bartolo, El Petén, Guatemala, Part 2: The West Wall. Ancient America, Vol. 10. Center for Ancient American Studies, Barnardsville.Google Scholar
Tedlock, Barbara 1982 Time and the Highland Maya. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1942 Late Ceramic Horizons at Benque Viejo, British Honduras. Contributions to American Anthropology and History, Vol. 7, No. 35. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1970 Maya History and Religion. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Tilden, Doug, Slocum, Diane L., Awe, Jaime J., and Sullivan, Kelsey 2017 The 2016 Investigations of Structure A9 at Xunantunich, Belize. In The Belize Valley Archaeological Reconnaissance Project: A Report of the 2016 Field Season, edited by Ebert, Claire E., Burke, Chrissina C., Hoggarth, Julie A., and Awe, Jaime J., pp. 315–343. Institute of Archaeology, Baylor University, Waco.Google Scholar
Tozzer, Alfred M. 1941 Landa's Relación de las cosas de Yucatan: A Translation. Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 18. Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Turner, Victor 1974 Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1969 Zinacantan: A Maya Community in the Highlands of Chiapas. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1976 Tortillas for the Gods: A Symbolic Analysis of Zinacanteco Rituals. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z., and Stuart, David 2005 Some Notes on Ritual Caves Among the Ancient and Modern Maya. In The Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by Brady, James E. and Prufer, Keith M., pp. 155–185. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Walker, William H. 1995 Ceremonial Trash? In Expanding Archaeology, edited by Skibo, James M., Walker, William H., and Nielson, Axel E., pp. 67–79. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Walker, William H. 2002 Stratigraphy and Practical Reason. American Anthropologist 104:159–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webster, David 2002 The Fall of the Ancient Maya: Solving the Mystery of the Maya Collapse. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Yaeger, Jason 2010 Shifting Political Dynamics as Seen from the Xunantunich Palace. In Classic Maya Provincial Politics: Xunantunich and Its Hinterlands, edited by LeCount, Lisa J. and Yaeger, Jason, pp. 145–160. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar