Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-25T06:30:05.540Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The origins and early history of the Pontic-Cappadocian frontier

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 December 2013

Julian Bennett
Julian Bennett
Affiliation:
Bilkent University, Ankara
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

With an overall length of about 550km, the Pontic-Cappadocian frontier was among the longest in the Roman Empire. It is also the least known, as there is a minimal amount of literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence available for the location and identity of the province's garrison. In addition, many of the military stations known or believed to have existed on the frontier are now lost beneath the waters of the Keban dam. However, a re-examination of the available evidence, along with recent limited and spontaneous fieldwork in the region, allows for some tentative remarks to be made on the origins and early history of this frontier. These form the main subject of this article, and include the suggestion that Nero should be credited with the genesis of this frontier, not Vespasian, as usually indicated in the modern literature.

Özet

Yaklaşık 550km'lik toplam uzunluğuyla Pontus-Kapadokya sınırı Roma İmparatorluğu'nun en uzun sınırlarından biriydi. Eyaletin garnizonunun yeri ve kimliği ile ilgili mevcut edebi, epigrafik ve arkeolojik kanitların azliğından dolayı en az bilinendirde. Buna ek olarak, sınırda olduğu bilinen veya varsayılan pek çok askeri yerleşim günümüzde keban barajının suları altında kalmıştır. Bununla beraber, bölgedeki kısıtlı ve kendiliğinden gelişen güncel alan çalışmalarıyla mevcut kanıtların yeniden incelenmesi ve sınırın kökenleri ve ilk tarihi hakkında bazı yaklaşık görüşler ortaya koymaya imkan verir. Bu görüşler bu makalenin ana konusunu oluşturur, ve modern edebiyatta sıkça belirtildiği gibi sınırın meydana getiriliş onurunun Vespasian'a değil Nero'ya atfedilmesi gerektiği önerisini içerir.

Type
Research Article
Information
Anatolian Studies , Volume 56 , December 2006 , pp. 77 - 93
Copyright
Copyright © The British Institute at Ankara 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, A.R. 1928: ‘Alexander at the Caspian Gates’ Transactions of the American Philosophical Association 59:130–63Google Scholar
Barrett, A.A. 1977: ‘Sohaemus, King of Emesa and Sophene’ American Journal of Philology 98: 153–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, J. 2001: Trajan, Optimus Princeps. LondonGoogle Scholar
Bennett, J. 2002: ‘The Cappadocian frontier: from the Julio-Claudians to Hadrian’ in Freeman, P.W.M., Bennett, J., Fiema, Z.T., Hoffmann, B. (eds), Limes XVIII. Oxford: 301–12Google Scholar
Bennett, J. 2006: ‘The Roman fort at Tihâ;u-Cetate, Sâlaj province, Romania: the results of geophysical and other surveys’ Journal of Roman Archaeology 19: 278–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bennett, J. 2007: ‘The Roman army in Lycia and Pamphylia’ Adalya 10: 131–53Google Scholar
Blockley, R. 1987: ‘The division of Armenia between the Romans and the Persians at the end of the fourth century AD’ Historia 36: 222–34Google Scholar
Blockley, R. 1992: East Roman Foreign Policy: Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius. LeedsGoogle Scholar
Bosworth, A.B. 1971: ‘Arrian and the Alani’ Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 81: 217–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowersock, G.W. 1973: ‘Syria under Vespasian’ Journal of Roman Studies 63: 133–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braund, D. 1996: ‘River frontiers in the environmental psychology of the Roman world’ in Kennedy, D.L. (ed.), The Roman Army in the East. Ann Arbor MI: 43–47Google Scholar
Bryer, A.A.M., Winfield, D. 1985: The Byzantine Monuments and Topography of the Pontos (Dumbarton Oaks Studies 20). WashingtonGoogle Scholar
Caballos Rufino, A. 1990: Los senadores hispanorromanos y la romanizacion de Hispana (sighs I-III). SevilleGoogle Scholar
Crow, J.G. 1986: ‘A review of the physical remains of the frontiers of Cappadocia’ in Freeman, P.W.M., Kennedy, D. (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East. Oxford: 77–91Google Scholar
Crow, J.G., French, D.H. 1980: ‘New research on the Euphrates frontier in Turkey’ in Hanson, W.S., Keppie, L.J.F. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies XII. Oxford: 903–13Google Scholar
Dabrowa, E. 1994: ‘The Bellum Commagenicum and the Ornamenta Triumphalia of M.Ulpius Traianus’ in Dabrowa, E. (ed), The Roman and Byzantine Army in the East. Kracow: 19–27Google Scholar
Dabrowa, E. (ed.) 1994: The Roman and Byzantine Army in the East. KracowGoogle Scholar
Dabrowa, E. 1998: The Governors of Roman Syria from Augustus to Septimius Severus. BonnGoogle Scholar
Dabrowa, E. 2000: ‘Legio III Gallica’ in Le Bohec, Y., Wolff, C. (eds), Les Légions de Rome sous le haut-empire. Paris: 309–16Google Scholar
Daniels, C.M. (ed.) 1978: Handbook to the Roman Wall. Newcastle upon TyneGoogle Scholar
Dilke, O.A.W. 1998: Greek and Roman Maps. LondonGoogle Scholar
Dobson, B. 1986: ‘The Roman army: wartime or peacetime army?’ in Eck, W., Wolff, H. (eds), Heer und Integrationspolitik. Die römischen Miliärdiplom als historische Quelle. Cologne: 10–25Google Scholar
Dušanić, S. 1978: ‘A military diploma of AD 65’ Germania 56: 461–75Google Scholar
Eck, W. 1982: ‘Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139: I’ Chiron 12: 281–362Google Scholar
Eck, W., Pangerl, A. 2004: ‘Eine Bürgerrechtskonstitution für zwei Veteranen des kappadokischen Heeres. Zur Häufigkeit von Bürgerrechtskonstitutionen für Auxialiarsoldaten’ Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 150: 233–41Google Scholar
Eck, W., Wolff, H. (eds) 1986: Heer und Integrationspolitik. Die römischen Miliärdiplom als historische Quelle. CologneGoogle Scholar
Edwards, R.W. 1986: ‘The fortifications of Artvin: a second preliminary report on the marchlands of northeast Turkey’ Dumbarton Oaks Papers 40: 165–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Erinç, S. 1969: Klimatoloji ve Metodlari. IstanbulGoogle Scholar
Fink, R.O. 1971: Roman Military Records on Papyri. ClevelandGoogle Scholar
Freeman, P.W.C., Bennett, J., Fiema, Z.T., Hoffmann, B. (eds) 2002: Limes XVIII. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Freeman, P.W.C., Kennedy, D. (eds) 1986: The Defences of the Roman and Byzantine East. OxfordGoogle Scholar
French, D.H. 1983: ‘New research on the Euphrates frontier: supplementary notes 1 and 2’ in Mitchell, S. (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia. Oxford: 79–101Google Scholar
French, D.H. 1988: Roman Roads and Milestones of Asia Minor 2. OxfordGoogle Scholar
French, D.H., Lightfoot, C. (eds) 1989: The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Gallivan, P.A. 1981: ‘The Fasti for AD 70–96’ Classical Quarterly 31: 186–220CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graf, D.F. 1997: ‘The Via Militaris and the Limes Arabicus’ in Waateringe, W. Groenmann-van, Van Beek, B.L., Willems, W.J.H., Wynia, S.L. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies 1995. Oxford: 123–34Google Scholar
Groenmann-van Waateringe, W., Van Beek, B.L., Willems, W.J.H., Wynia, S.L. (eds) 1997: Roman Frontier Studies 1995. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Hanson, W.S., Keppie, L.J.F. (eds) 1980: Roman Frontier Studies XII. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Harper, R. 1974: ‘Pağnїk Öğreni excavations 1971’ in Peckman, S. (ed.), Keban Project Publications 1:4: 1971 Activities. Ankara: 107–08Google Scholar
Heidenreich, R. 1983: ‘Zur östlichsten lateinischen Inschrift’ Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 52: 213–14Google Scholar
Henderson, B.W. 1901: ‘The chronology of the wars in Armenia, AD 51–63’ Classical Review 15/3: 159–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodgson, N. 1989: ‘The East as part of the wider Imperial frontier policy’ in French, D.H., Lightfoot, C. (eds), The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire. Oxford: 177–89Google Scholar
Hyland, A. 1993: Training the Roman Cavalry: from Arrian's Ars Tactica. StroudGoogle Scholar
Isaac, B. 1988: ‘The meaning of the terms Limes and Limitanei’ Journal of Roman Studies 78: 125–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, B. 1992: The Limits of Empire: the Roman Frontier in the East. OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, D.L. (ed.) 1996: The Roman Army in the East. Ann Arbor MIGoogle Scholar
Keppie, L.F.J. 1986: ‘Legions in the East from Augustus to Trajan’ in Freeman, P.W.M., Kennedy, D. (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East. Oxford: 411–29Google Scholar
Lander, J. 1984: Roman Stone Fortifications: Variation and Change from the First Century to the Fourth. OxfordCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Bohec, Y., Wolff, C. (eds) 2000: Les Légions de Rome sous le haut-empire. ParisGoogle Scholar
Lepper, F., Frere, S.S. 1988: Trajan's Column. GloucesterGoogle Scholar
Levick, B. 1976: Tiberius, the Politician. LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levick, B. 1999: Vespasian. LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luttwak, E.N. 1976: The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: from the First Century AD to the Third. Baltimore MAGoogle Scholar
Magie, D.R. 1950: Roman Rule in Asia Minor. PrincetonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, R. (ed.) 1998: Ancient Anatolia. LondonGoogle Scholar
Maxfield, V.A., Dobson, M.J. (eds) 1991: Roman Frontier Studies 1989. ExeterGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, S. (ed.) 1983: Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, S. 1993: Anatolia: Land, Men and Gods in Asia Minor I. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Mitford, T.B. 1972: The Roman Frontier on the Euphrates Frontier. Unpublished DPhil thesis, University of OxfordGoogle Scholar
Mitford, T.B. 1974: ‘Some inscriptions from the Cappadocian Limes’ Journal of Roman Studies 64: 160–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitford, T.B. 1980a: ‘Cappadocia and Armenia Minor: historical setting of the Limes’ Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.7.2: 1169–228Google Scholar
Mitford, T.B. 1980b: ‘The Limes in the Kurdish Taurus’ in Hanson, W.S., Keppie, L.J.F. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies XII. Oxford: 913–26Google Scholar
Mitford, T.B. 1989, ‘High and low level routes across the Taurus and Anti-Taurus’ in French, D.H., Lightfoot, C. (eds), The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire. Oxford: 329–33Google Scholar
Mitford, T.B. 1998: ‘The Roman frontier on the upper Euphrates’ in Matthews, R. (ed.), Ancient Anatolia. London: 254–72Google Scholar
Peckman, S. (ed.) 1989: Keban Project Publications 1:4: 1971 Activities. AnkaraGoogle Scholar
Pferdehirt, B. 2004: Römische Militärdiplome und Entlassungsurkunden in der Sammlung des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums. BonnGoogle Scholar
Reinach, T. 1925: Récueil général des Monnaies grecques d'Asie mineure I. ParisGoogle Scholar
Rémy, B. 1986: L'évolution administrative de l'Anatolie aux trois premiers siècles de notre ére. ParisGoogle Scholar
Rémy, B. 1989: Les carrieres senatoriales dans les provinces romaines d'Anatolie au Haut-Empire (31 av. J.-C.-284 ap. J.-C.): Pont-Bithynie, Galatie, Cappadoce, Lycie-Pamphylie et Cilicie. IstanbulGoogle Scholar
Ritterling, E. 1927: ‘Military forces in the senatorial provinces’ Journal of Roman Studies 17: 28–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rougé, J. (ed.) 1966: Expositio Totius Mundi et Gentium (Sources Chrétiennes 124). ParisGoogle Scholar
Russell, J.R. 1987: Zoroastrianism in Armenia. Cambridge, MAGoogle Scholar
Sasel, J. 1973: ‘Trajan's canal at the Iron Gate’ Journal of Roman Studies 63: 80–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, T. A. 1989: Eastern Turkey: an Architectural and Archaeological Survey III. LondonGoogle Scholar
Speidel, M.A. 1992: ‘Roman army pay scales’ Journal of Roman Studies 82: 87–106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Speidel, M.A. 1998: ‘Legio IIII Scythica, its movements and men’ in Kennedy, D.L. (ed.), The Roman Army in the East. Ann Arbor MI: 163–204Google Scholar
Speidel, M.A. 2000: ‘Legio IV Scythica’ in Le Bohec, Y., Wolff, C. (eds), Les Légions de Rome sous le haut-empire. Paris: 327–37Google Scholar
Speidel, M.P. 1983a: ‘The Roman army in Asia Minor: recent epigraphical discoveries and research’ in Mitchell, S. (ed.), Armies and Frontiers in Roman and Byzantine Anatolia. Oxford: 7–34Google Scholar
Speidel, M.P. 1983b: ‘The army in Judea under the procurators’ Ancient Society 13/14: 233–40Google Scholar
Sullivan, R.D. 1980a: ‘The dynasty of Cappadocia’ Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2:7:21125–68Google Scholar
Sullivan, R.D. 1980b: ‘Dynasts in Pontus’ Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt 2.1.2: 913–30Google Scholar
Syme, R. 1958: Tacitus. OxfordGoogle Scholar
Todd, M. 1985: ‘Oppida and the Roman army’ Oxford Journal of Archaeology 4: 187–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Berchem, D. 1983: ‘Une inscription flavienne du Musée d'Antioche’ Museum Helveticum 40: 185–96Google Scholar
Wardle, D. 1992: ‘Caligula and the client kings’ Classical Quarterly 42/2: 437–43CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, E. (ed.) 1976: Tabula Peutingeriana. GrazGoogle Scholar
Weinstein, M.E., Turner, E.G. 1976: ‘Greek and Latin papyri from Qasr Ibrim’ Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 62: 115–30Google Scholar
Wheeler, E.L. 1991: ‘Re-thinking the upper Euphrates: where was the western border of Armenia?’ in Maxfield, V.A., Dobson, M.J. (eds), Roman Frontier Studies 1989. Exeter: 505–11Google Scholar
Wheeler, E.L. 1996: ‘The laxity of the Syrian legions’ in Kennedy, D.L. (ed.), The Roman Army in the East. Ann Arbor MI: 229–76Google Scholar
Wheeler, E.L. 1997a: ‘From Pityus to Zeugma: the northern sector of the eastern frontier’ in Gudea, N. (ed.), Roman Frontier Studies XVII/1997. Zalau: 215–30Google Scholar
Wheeler, E.L. 1997b: ‘The chronology of Corbulo in Armenia’ Klio 79:383–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, E.L. 2000: ‘Legio XV Apollinaris’ in Le Bohec, Y., Wolff, C. (eds), Les Légions de Rome sous le haut-empire. Paris: 258–308Google Scholar