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The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua, 1913–1921

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

George W. Baker Jr.
George W. Baker Jr.*
Affiliation:
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York
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Extract

In latin american relations, Woodrow Wilson sought to revolutionize United States policy by supplanting the “Big Stick ”diplomacy of Theodore Roosevelt and the “Dollar Diplomacy ”of William H. Taft with a new Pan Americanism. He not only reiterated his desire to be a good neighbor in numerous speeches, particularly his famous Mobile address of October, 1913, but he even formulated a Pan American Pact to promote hemispheric unity by providing for mutual sovereign and territorial respect. His pact failed largely because of the nationalistic opposition of Chile, and his grand design, though cropping up later in the League of Nations idea, ultimately went the way of all Utopian dreams. Then, since Wilson turned his attention to European and domestic affairs, it remained for his three successive secretaries of state, William Jennings Bryan, Robert Lansing, and Bainbridge Colby, to face the realities of Latin American relations and to apply their own policies in dealing with the immediate problems, especially of the smaller republics. Though each man predicated his policies upon Wilson’s promises of friendship as far as possible, and referred critical problems to the president, each generally left the imprint of his own beliefs and personality on hemispheric relations.

Bryan was sympathetic with the president’s goal of the brotherhood of nations, but he conceived his own plan for resolving international conflicts by proposing that all nations sign bilateral arbitration treaties and then submit their differences for at least a year’s consideration to an international arbitral board. He believed that if nations could be deterred from a hasty resort to arms, they would either “cool off ”while awaiting the decision or have their problem solved. But, Bryan, like Wilson, was not to achieve his larger objective because of nationalistic opposition, and he had to do what he could as a “Good Samaritan ”to help all nations become, like the United States, constitutionally sound republics.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 22 , Issue 4 , April 1966 , pp. 339 - 376
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 1966

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References

1 Wilson, Woodrow, “Message to Congress, December 7, 1915, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States(hereafter cited as Foreign Relations), 1915, p. xi Google Scholar; on the Pan American Pact, see: Entry of November 25, 1914, Diary, Edward M. House Papers, Yale University Library; and Seymour, Charles, The Intimate Papers of Colonel House (4 vols.; Boston, 1926), I, 208–218 Google Scholar; on Wilson’s delegation of authority, see: Link, Arthur S., Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era (New York, 1954), p. 97nGoogle Scholar; and the present writer’s “ The Wilson Administration and Cuba, 1913–1921,” Mid-America, XLVI (January, 1964), 48–63 Google Scholar.

2 His treaties were signed by most Latin American nations who had much to gain by arbitration. Nicaragua signed a treaty but it did not significantly affect relations. On Bryan’s dream, see: Curti, Merle F., “Bryan and World Peace,” Smith College Studies in History, XVI (April-July, 1913), 113–262 Google Scholar; and Bryan to Wilson, August 1, 1913, The Bryan Papers, Library of Congress.

3 Bryan to Minister George Weitzel, March 5, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, p. 1039.

4 Bryan to Wilson, March 31, 1913 and Wilson to Bryan, April 1, 1913; The Wilson Papers, Library of Congress.

5 State Department Memorandum, May 22, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1040–1042; and Weitzel, George W., “American Policy in Nicaragua,” Senate Document No. 334, 64th Congress, 1st session (Washington, 1916), p. 3 Google Scholar; see also: Callcott, Wilfrid H., The Caribbean Policy of the United States (Baltimore, 1942), pp. 280–281 Google Scholar; Munro, Dana G., The United States and the Caribbean (Boston, 1934), pp. 230–231 Google Scholar, and Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Carribbean, 1900–1921 (Princeton, 1964), pp. 160–216, 388–425 Google Scholar; de Cárdenas, Raúl y Echarte, , La política de los Estados Unidos en el continente americano (La Habana, 1921), pp. 253–255 Google Scholar; Schoenrich, Otto, “The Nicaraguan Mixed Claims Commission,” American Journal of International Law, IX (October, 1915), 958–969 Google Scholar; Arana, César, Compilación de contratos y leyes sobre empréstitos (3 vols.; Managua, 1928–1929), I, 15 Google Scholar; Hill, R.R., “The Nicaraguan Canal Idea to 1913,” Hispanic American Historical Review, XXVIII (1948), 197–211 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Powell, Anna I., “Relations between the United States and Nicaragua,” Hispanic American Historical Review, VIII (1928), 43–64 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 Bryan to Wilson, May 24, 1913, Wilson Papers.

7 Chargé d’affaires Arthur Jones to Bryan, May 27, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1042–1043; Bryan to Wilson, June 16, 1913, Wilson to Bryan, June 19, 1913, Wilson Papers; Memorandum of the Latin American Division, June 19, 1913, Department of State Papers, Decimal File (hereafter cited as D.S. File) 817. 812/34; National Archives; Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, p. 96; Link, Wilson, , the New Freedom (Princeton, New Jersey, 1956), p. 333 Google Scholar.

8 The New York Times, July 21, 1913, 1:1, 6:1, strongly indorsed the treaty; other papers which approved the treaty included the New York Tribune (Republican), New York Sun (Independent), New York Press (Progressive), Washington Times (Progressive), and Boston Transcript (Independent-Republican); the New York World had “misgivings ”and called it “drumstick diplomacy ”; for other views, see Literary Digest, XLVII (August 2, 1913), 155–157; Nation, XCVII (June 31, 1913), 92–93; and The New York Times, July 22, 1913, 2:2.

9 Pedro Joaquín Chamorro, Cuadra, Motivos sobre el Tratado Chamorro-Bryan (Managua, 1950)Google Scholar, suggests that Senator Bacon believed the committee would approve the protectorate provisions. Borah’s, remark is in Claudius O. Johnson ’s Borah of Idaho (New York and London, 1936), pp. 191–192 Google Scholar; Bryan to Wilson, July 31, 1913, Wilson Papers; The New York Times, August 3, 1913, II, 2:7.

10 Joaquín B. Calvo to Bryan, April 7, 1913, Bryan to Chamorro, June 24, 1913, Bryan to Minister in Guatemala, William R. Leavell, mutatis mutandis to Honduras, August 2, 1913, Moore, John B. to Minister in El Salvador Boaz Long, August 5, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1022–1025 Google Scholar; Moreno, Laudelino, Historia de las relaciones interestatuales de Centroamérica (Madrid, 1928), pp. 231–234 Google Scholar; Cárdenas y Echarte, La política de los Estados Unidos en el continente americano, pp. 258–259.

11 Bryan to Wilson, August 6, 1913, Wilson to Bryan, August 6, 1913, Wilson Papers.

12 Bryan to Wilson, August 16, 1913, ibid.; Bryan to Jefferson, August 17, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, p. 1046.

13 Bryan to Wilson, August 18, 1913, Wilson Papers.

14 Bryan to Wilson, August 23, 1913, ibid., Bryan to Brown Brothers and Company, August 20, 1913, Brown Brothers and Company and J. and W. Seligman and Company to Bryan, August 28, 1913, D.S. File 817.51/561; Boaz Long, head of the Latin American Division, to Bryan, August 30, 1913, D.S. File 817.51/556½.

15 Cuadra to Bryan, August 30, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1047–1050.

16 Chamorro and Cuadra to Bryan, September 1, 1913, ibid., pp. 1050–1052; Bryan to Wilson, September 3, 1913, Wilson Papers; Brown and Seligman to Bryan, September 4, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1052–1053.

17 Jefferson to Bryan, September 16, 1913, Bryan to Brown and Seligman, September 17, 1913, Brown and Seligman to Bryan, September 19, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1053–1054; State Department Memorandum by Long, September 22, 1913, D.S. File 817.51/584.

18 Bryan to Wilson, October 3, 1913, Wilson to Bryan, October 3, 1913, Bryan to Wilson, October 4, 1913, Wilson Papers; Bryan to Brown and Seligman, October 6, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, p. 1056; Arana, Compilación de contratos y leyes sobre empréstitos, III, part II, 70–82, 98–99.

19 John B. Moore to Minister Benjamin Jefferson, October 10, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, p. 1059; Díaz to Wilson, October 15, 1913, Joseph Tumulty to Bryan, October 17, 1913, D.S. File 817.51/609; Bryan to Brown and Seligman, November 5, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1064–1066; Bryan to Wilson, November 11, 1913, Wilson to Bryan, November 18, 1913, Wilson Papers.

20 Minister to Costa Rica Edwin J. Hale to Bryan, September 19, 1913, Bryan to Hale, September 21, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1025–1026; Bryan to Wilson, September 23, 1913, Wilson to Bryan, September 25, 1913, Wilson Papers.

21 Chamorro to Bryan, October 10, 1913, Francisco Dueñas, minister of El Salvador, to Bryan, October 21, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1027–1031; Moore to Tumulty, November 1, 1913, Wilson to Moore, November 21, 1913, Wilson Papers.

22 Jefferson to Bryan, December 18, 1913, Diego M. Chamorro, Nicaraguan minister for foreign affairs, to Francisco José Urrutía, Colombian minister for foreign affairs, December 24, 1913, Foreign Relations, 1913, pp. 1032–1034.

23 Bryan to Wilson, January 15, 1914, Wilson to Bryan, January 20, 1914, Wilson Papers; Bryan to Wilson, January 23, 1914, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence, National Archives.

24 Moore to Wilson, January 26, 1914, D.S. File 817.812/58a; Bryan to Wilson, January 29, 1914, Bryan Papers; Wilson to Bryan, February 20, 1914, D.S. File 817. 812/182; Díaz to Wilson, February 3, 1914, Wilson Papers; Chamorro to Bryan, February 12, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 953–954.

25 Bryan to Brown and Seligman, January 13, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 944–945; Boaz Long to Bryan, February 6, 1914, D.S. File 817.00/2321; Jefferson to Bryan, February 8, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 945–946.

26 Bryan to Wilson, February 11, 1914, D.S. File 817.51/630a; Chamorro to Bryan, February 12, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 953–954; Wilson to Bryan, March 30, 1914, Wilson Papers.

27 Pedro Rafael Cuadra to Bryan, May 13, 1914, D.S. File 817.51/726; Wilson to Bryan, May 20, 1914, Wilson Papers; Díaz to Wilson, May 20, 1914, Bryan to Díaz, May 23, 1914, D.S. File 817.812/73.

28 Bryan to Wilson, June 12, 1914, Wilson to Bryan, June 13, 1914, Wilson Papers; for a copy of Lansing’s memorandum, see D.S. File 817.812/168.

29 The New York Times, June 17, 1914, 4:4, June 19, 1914, 14:1, June 24, 1914, 12:3.

30 Bryan to Francisco Dueñas, February 18, 1914, Calvo to Bryan, July 7, 1914, Bryan to Calvo, July 16, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 954–956, 959, 960 respectively; The New York Times, July 9, 1914, 1:5.

31 Bryan to Stone, July 12, 1914,.D. S. File 817.812/84a.

32 Bryan to Wilson, August 8, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, p. 966; State Department Memorandum by the Latin American Division, August 8, 1914, Wilson Papers; The New York Times, August 27, 1914, 8:7 and 10:8Google Scholar.

33 Jefferson to Bryan, September 5, 1914, Bryan to Jefferson, September 9, 1914, Jefferson to Bryan, September 10, 1914, Bryan to Jefferson, September 14, 1914, Jefferson to Bryan, , September 23, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 946–948 Google Scholar.

34 Bryan to Wilson, September 30, 1914, Wilson to Stone, October 1, 1914, Wilson to Bryan, October 1, 1914, Wilson Papers; The New York Times, October 13, 1914, 10:8 and October 15, 1914, 12:8; Bryan to Jefferson, October 1, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, p. 948.

35 Jefferson to Bryan, October 2, 1914, Díaz to Wilson, October 2, 1914, Bryan to Jefferson, October 3, 1914, Robert Lansing (acting secretary of state) to Brown and Seligman, October 14, 1914, Chamorro to Bryan, October 16, 1914, Chamorro to Bryan, November 17, 1914, Chamorro to Bryan, November 21, 1914, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 948–953.

36 Bryan to Wilson, January 12, 1915, Bryan to Wilson, January 22, 1915, Bryan Papers; Wilson to Bryan, January 26, 1915, D.S. File 817.812/385a.

37 The New York Times, January 25, 1915, 5:4 and January 26, 1915, 4:4 and 10:3.

38 Bryan to E.J. Hale, January 28, 1915, Hale to Bryan, February 27, 1915, Foreign Relations, 1915, pp. 1104, 1109–1112; Bryan to Wilson, March 11, 1915, Wilson to Bryan, March 11, 1915, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence.

39 Bryan to Long, January 28, 1915, Long to Bryan, March 26, 1915, Bryan to Long, April 4, 1915, Foreign Relations, 1914, pp. 1105, 1115–1117; Bryan to Wilson, March 27, 1915, Bryan-Wilson Correspondence; Bryan to Dueñas, April 3, 1915, Bryan Papers.

40 Bryan to Wilson, February 23, 1915, Bryan Papers; Bryan to Chamorro, March 4, 1915, D.S. File 817.812/117a; Bryan to Jefferson, March 6, 1915, Chamorro to Bryan, March 12, 1915, Jefferson to Bryan, March 13, 1915, Foreign Relations, 1915, pp. 1112–1114.

41 Lansing, Robert, “Consideration and Outline of Policies,” July 11, 1915, Lansing Papers, Library of Congress; Lansing to Wilson, November 24, 1915, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: The Lansing Papers 1914–1920 (hereafter cited as The Lansing Papers) (Washington, 1939–1940), II, 467 Google Scholar; see also Pratt, Julius W., “Robert Lansing,” in Samuel Flagg Bemis (ed.), The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy (10 vols.; New York, 1927–1929), X, 47–175 Google Scholar, and Smith, Daniel M., “Robert Lansing,” in Graebner, Norman A. (ed.), An Uncertain Tradition (New York, 1961)Google Scholar.

42 Jefferson to Bryan, April 13, 1915, D.S. File 817.00/2408; Lansing to Jefferson, July 8, 1915, D.S. File 817.00/2416b; Lansing to Jefferson, October 29, 1915, D.S. File 817.00/2423.

43 Wilson to Lansing, December 15, 1915, D.S. File 817.00/2428.

44 State Department Memorandum by Wright, December 15, 1915, Polk Papers, Yale University Library; State Department Memorandum by Wright, January 14, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2439; State Department Memorandum by Wright, February 28, 1916, D. S. File 817.00/2435.

45 Lansing to Wilson, March 29, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2440a; for enclosure, see Weitzel, George, American Policy in Nicaragua, Senate Document No. 334, 64th congress, 1st session; Wilson to Lansing, April 2, 1916 Google Scholar, D.S. File 817.00/2444½ .

46 Lansing to Polk, July 29, 1916, Polk to Lansing, August 3, 1916, Polk Papers; Lansing to Jefferson, May 5, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2444a; Lansing to Jefferson, June 16, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2445; Jefferson to Lansing, July 18, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2543; Díaz to Cuadra, July 26, 1916, Lansing Papers.

47 Wright to Polk, July 28, 1916, Lansing Papers; Lansing to Polk, July 29, 1916, Polk Papers.

48 Wright to Lansing, August 10, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2463.

49 Jefferson to Lansing, August 13, 1916, D.S. File 817.51/809; Stabler to Lansing, September 7, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2482.

50 Lansing to Jefferson, September 7, 1916, ibid.; Lansing to Jefferson, September 12, 1916, D. S. File 817.00/2486.

51 Jefferson to Lansing, September 17, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2490; The New York Times, September 24, 1916, VII, 2:3; Jefferson to Lansing, September 26, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2494; Jefferson to Lansing, October 2, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2499.

52 Stewart Johnson (Guatemala) to Lansing, October 16, 1916, Willing Spencer (Honduras) to Lansing, October 19, 1916, D.S. File 817.00/2521; Jefferson to Lansing, June 1, 1917, D. S. File 817.00/2577.

53 Josephus Daniels (secretary of navy) to Lansing, February 1, 1916, and Lansing to Stone, February 3, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/148.

54 State Department Memorandum by Long, December 16, 1915, D.S. File 817.812/175; The New York Times, January 27, 1916, 5:6.

55 Entry of January 3, 1916, Diary of Anderson, Chandler P., Anderson Papers, Library of Congress; Quesada to Lansing, February 2, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 811–812 Google ScholarPubMed.

56 Zaldívar to Lansing, February 9, 1916, ibid., pp. 814–817.

57 Betancourt to Lansing, February 6, 1916, ibid., pp. 812–814.

58 Cox, Isaac J., Nicaragua and the United States 1909–1927 (Boston, 1927), pp. 726–728 Google Scholar; Link, Wilson, The New Freedom, p. 345.

59 Wright to Polk, December 18, 1915, Polk Papers; Entry of January 6, 1916, Lansing Desk Diary.

60 For correspondence on the exchange, see Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 819–847.

61 For the treaty, see ibid., pp. 848–852.

62 The New York Times, February 19, 1916, 1:6; Lansing to Bryan, February 28, 1916, Lansing Papers.

63 For the quotation, see “ United States Bullets and Dollars in Nicaragua,” Everybody’s Magazine, XXXIV (April, 1916), 529–531 Google Scholar; for favorable views, see “ Buying Another Canal Route,” Literary Digest, LII (March 4, 1916), 552 Google Scholar; Ham, Clifford, “Americanizing Nicaragua,” Review of Reviews, LIII (February, 1916), 185–191 Google Scholar, “Nicaragua Treaty,” Independent Review, LXXXV (February 28, 1916), 292–293, “Treaty with Nicaragua,” Outlook, CXII (March 1, 1916), 482.

64 Spring-Rice to Lansing, April 12, 1916, Lansing to Spring-Rice, May 5, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/195.

65 Zavela to Lansing, July 17, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 898–902.

66 Brown and Seligman to Lansing, July 17, 1916, ibid., pp. 902–906; Brown and Seligman to Wilson, July 31, 1916, Wilson to Polk, August 2, 1916, Lansing to Wilson, August 19, 1916, D.S. File 817.51/815; Wilson to Lansing, August 22, 1916, D.S. File 817.51/818.

67 Polk to Jefferson, August 10, 1916, Lansing to Zavela, August 31, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 906–908; Lansing to Wilson, November 20, 1916, D.S. File 817.51/815; Wilson to Lansing, December 8, 1916, D.S. File 817.51/883.

68 Jefferson to Lansing, December 14, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, p. 915; State Department Memorandum by Stabler, December 18, 1916, D.S. File 817.51/880.

69 Of the two Americans appointed to the commission, because of poor public conduct, one was soon fired by Lansing; the other, Abram F. Lindberg, proved competent. D.S. File 817.51/1953.

70 Lansing to Jefferson, December 22, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, p. 916; Jefferson to Lansing, January 12, 1917, Jefferson to Lansing, January 18, 1917; Jefferson to Lansing, January 30, 1917, Lansing to Jefferson, February 7, 1917, Jefferson to Lansing, March 7, 1917, Polk to Jefferson, March 24, 1917, Lansing to Jefferson, April 20, 1917, Foreign Relations, 1917, pp. 1112–1124.

71 Lansing to Jefferson, June 21, 1917, Foreign Relations, 1917, pp. 1127–1128.

72 Under American pressure, Zelaya had agreed to pay an indemnity of f600,000 for the Emery Claim. State Department Memorandum, June 6, 1917, D.S. File 817.51/968; Jefferson to Lansing, August 1, 1917, Polk to Jefferson, August 2, 1917, Lansing to Jefferson, August 9, 1917, Foreign Relations, 1917, pp. 1133–1137.

73 The Commission of Public Credit in its three months of life had pared down the debt claims from $13,500,000. Jefferson to Lansing, September 1, 1917, Jefferson to Lansing, September 12, 1917, Foreign Relations, 1917, pp. 1136–1137; United States Department of State, The United States and Nicaragua (Washington, 1932), pp. 34–36 Google Scholar.

74 Jefferson to Lansing, January 8, 1918, and Lansing to Jefferson, January 14, 1918, Foreign Relations, 1918, p. 825; Arana, Compilación de contratos y leyes sobre empréstitos, III, part 2, pp. 151–172; The United States and Nicaragua, pp. 36–37.

75 State Department Memorandum, March 13, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/151.

76 Zaldívar to Lansing, March 28, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 827–831.

77 Quesada to Lansing, May 23, 1916, Jefferson to Lansing, June 17, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 838–845.

78 Entry of June 2, 1916, Polk Diary; State Department Memorandum by Wright, June 29, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/268.

79 Long to Wright, May 26, 1916, Wright to Long, July 24, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/335; Long to Lansing, September 23, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 835–862; Moreno, Historia de las relaciones interestatuales de Centroamérica, pp. 237–244.

80 Decision and Opinion of the Court of the Complaint of the Republic of Costa Rica Against the Republic of Nicaragua, Before the Central American Court of Justice, September 30, 1916 (Washington, 1917)Google Scholar; E.J. Hale to Lansing, October 16, 1916, Quesada to Lansing, October 30, 1916, Central American Court of Justice to the Governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, November 9, 1916, Foreign Relations, 1916, pp. 862–866, 886–887, 893–898.

81 Long to Lansing, November 16, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/264; Willing Spencer to Lansing, November 15, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/266; Long to Lansing, December 2, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/271; Stabler to Lansing, December 4, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/270; Long to Lansing, December 5, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/288; Long to Lansing, December 22, 1916, D.S. File 817.812/286; Cárdenas, y Echarte, , La política de los Estados Unidos en el continente americano, pp. 256–258 Google Scholar.

82 “Treaty in Chancery,” North American Review, CCIV (August, 1916), 174–178; “Nicaragua in Trouble,” Outlook, CXIV (September 27, 1916), 160; The New York Times, September 24, 1916, 2:3 and November 3, 1916, 4:1; Root to Anderson, October 25, 1916, Anderson Papers, Library of Congress.

83 Entries of November 20, 1916, and February 2, 1917, Anderson Diary; Oreamuno to Anderson, December 20, 1916, Anderson Papers.

84 Jefferson to Lansing, March 7, 1917, D.S. File 817.812/301; J.A. Urtecho to Lansing, December 3, 1917, Foreign Relations, 1917, pp. 1104–1111; entries of October 17, 18, and 30, 1917, Diary, Anderson; “Nicaragua Case,” Independent Review, XC (May 12, 1917), 274 Google Scholar; Wicker, Cyrus, “Nicaragua and the United States,” The Atlantic Monthly, CXIX (May, 1917), 682–685 Google Scholar; “ Where We Let Justice Fail,” North American Review, CCVII (June 18, 1917), 816–817 Google Scholar; Muzzey, Henry R., “Rights of Small American Nations,” Annals of the American Academy, LXXII (July, 1917), 172–177 Google Scholar.

85 Martin, Percy A., Latin America and the War (Baltimore, 1925), pp. 501–515 Google Scholar.

86 Jefferson to Lansing, March 28, 1917, D.S. File 817.51/919; Martin, Latin America and the War, pp. 499–501.

87 State Department Memorandum, August 2, 1919, D.S. File 817.51/1166; John W. Davis (London) to Lansing, January 20, 1920, D.S. File 817.51/1197.

88 John Spargo, “Bainbridge Colby,” in Samuel F. Bemis (ed.), American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, X, 182–196; Daniel M. Smith, “Bainbridge Colby and the Good Neighbor Policy, 1920–1921,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, L, (June, 1963), 56–78.

89 State Department Memorandum by Jordan Stabler, August 5, 1919, Foreign Relations, 1920, III, 292; Polk to Jefferson, February 12, 1920, and Jefferson to Polk, February 26 and May 4, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2620a.

90 Colby to Jefferson, May 29, 1920, Foreign Relations, 1920, III, pp. 294–295; Jefferson to Colby, July 17, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2666; The United States and Nicaragua, pp. 39–40.

91 Jefferson to Colby, August 13 and 23, 1920, Colby to Jefferson, August 26, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2674.

92 Jefferson to Colby, September 9, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2704; Miller to Colby, September 10, 1920, and Colby to Jefferson, September 16, 1920, Foreign Relations, 1920, III, 298–300; Bryan to Colby, September 25, 1920, and Colby to Bryan, September 30, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2712.

93 Miller to Colby, September 30, 1920, and Jefferson to Colby, October 4, 1920, Foreign Relations, 1920, III, pp. 304–305; Miller to Colby, October 8, 1920, and Jefferson to Colby, October 11, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2722; Jefferson to Colby, October 11, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2731; Norman Davis (under-secretary of state) to Jefferson, December 1, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2741a; Jefferson to Colby, December 9, Davis to Jefferson, December 11, Jefferson to Colby, December 13, and Davis to Jefferson, December 15, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2744.

94 Welles to Davis, December 28, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2771; Davis to Tumulty, January 21, 1921, D.S. File 817.00/2755; between 1922 and 1924, Dr. Harold W. Dodds, a former political science professor at Western Reserve and secretary of the National Municipal League, served as electoral adviser to Nicaragua. His revisions were put into effect in the 1924 election and resulted in few charges of fraud. Dodds, “ The United States and Nicaragua,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, CXXXII (July, 1927), 134–141 Google Scholar.

95 Jefferson to Colby, February 20, 1921, D.S. File 817.00/2770.

96 Informe de la Alta Comisión (Managua, 1921)Google Scholar; The United States and Nicaragua, pp. 37–46; State Department Memorandum, September 29, 1920, D.S. File 817.51/1239; The New York Times, December 14, 1920, 29:4.

97 Frank D. Arnold (chargé d’affaires in El Salvador) to Colby, June 25, 1920, and Arnold to Colby, October 15, 1920, Foreign Relations, 1920, I, 169–172, 176; Conferencia de Plenipotenciarios Centro Americanos (San José, 1921), pp. 3–8 Google Scholar.

98 Colby to Herbert S. Goold (chargé d’affaires in Guatemala), November 18, 1920, and John E. Martin (chargé d’affaires in Costa Rica) to Colby, December 23, 1920, Foreign Relations, 1920, I, 177–178; Jefferson to Colby, December 3, 1920, D.S. File 817.00/2753; Cox, Nicaragua and the United States, pp. 739–764.

99 Martin to Colby, December 29, Foreign Relations, 1920, I, 178–179; Jefferson to Colby, January 10, 1921, Thurston to Colby, January 16, 1921, Thurston to Colby, January 19, 1921, Foreign Relations, 1921, pp. 143–145; Entry of January 21, 1921, Diary, Anderson; Moreno, Historia de los relaciones interestatuales de Centroamérica, pp. 315–327 Google Scholar.