¹ Juárez, Valentín García, Los Cristeros (Fresnillo, Zacatecas: n.p., 1990), p. 22;Google Scholar Chirino, Carlos Loveira y, El Obrerismo Yucateco y la Revolución Mexicana (Washington, DC: Law Reports Printing Co., 1917), pp. 43–44.Google Scholar

² Adrian Bantjes developed the concept of three waves of revolutionary anticlericalism in “The Regional Dynamics of Anticlericalism and Defanatization in Revolutionary Mexico,” Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary Mexico, ed. Butler, Matthew (London: Institute for the Study of the America, 2007), pp. 111–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar For a discussion of state formation in Mexico, see Joseph, Gilbert M. and Nugent, Daniel, “Popular Culture and State Formation in Revolutionary Mexico,” in Everyday Forms of State Formation, ed. Joseph, Gilbert M. and Nugent, Daniel (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994), pp. 3–23.Google Scholar My understanding of Mexican revolutionary culture also owes much to Knight, Alan, in particular “Popular Culture and the Revolutionary State in Mexico, 1910–1940,” Hispanic American Historical Review 74:3 (1994), pp. 393–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³ Quirk, Robert, The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church, 1910–1929 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), pp. 82–96;Google Scholar Taracena, Alfonso, La Verdadera Revolución Mexicana. Decimoséptima Etapa (1931): La Familia Revolucionaria I (Mexico City: Editorial Jus, 1965), pp. 160,Google Scholar 193, 224–27; Alvarez, Pablo Serrano, La batalla del espíritu: El movimiento sinarquista en el Bajío (1932–1951) 2 vols. (Mexico City: Consejo Nacional Para la Cultura y las Artes, 1992), vol.1 pp. 72–76;Google Scholar U.S. Consul Guadalajara Raleigh, A. Gibson to Secretary of State (hereafter SOS), 31 August 1931,Google Scholar Records of the Department of State Records of the Internal Affairs of Mexico (hereafter RDSRIAM) 1930–1939, Roll 40; Clark to SOS, 8 September 1931, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 15.

⁴ Meyer, Jean, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People Between Church and State, trans. Southern, Richard (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 19–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁵ On middle politics, see Ervin, Michael A., “The 1930 Agrarian Census in Mexico: Agronomists, Middle Politics, and the Negotiation of Nationalism,” Hispanic American Historical Review 87:3 (August 2007), pp. 539–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁶ Bantjes, Adrian, “Negating the Image: Case Studies in Iconoclasm,” in Negating the Image: Case Studies in Iconoclasm, ed. McClanan, Anne and Johnson, Jeff (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005), pp. 55–56;Google Scholar Bantjes, Adrian, “Saints, Sinners and State Formation,” in The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940, ed. Vaughan, Mary Kay and Lewis, Stephen E. (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), pp. 137–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁷ Butler, Mathew, “The Church in ‘Red Mexico’: Micheacán Catholics and the Mexican Revolution, 1920–1929,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 55:3 (July 2004), pp. 524–525,Google Scholar 529.

⁸ Buchenau, Jurgen, Plutarco Elías Calles and the Mexican Revolution (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), p. 93.Google Scholar

⁹ Ash, Timothy Garton, “Islam in Europe” 32–35 New York Review of Books Vol. 53:15 (October 5, 2006) p.34 Google Scholar

¹⁰ José, Malpica H., La Ciencia y la Religion. Ensayo de divulgación científica y filosófica (Villa-hermosa, Tabasco: n.p., 1930), p: 27.Google Scholar

¹¹ Hunting, Gardner, “A Despot Has No Luck Nowadays. The Firing Squad Spoiled Carrillo’s Dream,” Collier’s, 26 April 1924, pp. 15–16,Google Scholar 37–38; pp. 15–16.

¹² La Prensa, 6 October 1934, pp. 3–4.

¹³ Horcasitas, Beatriz Urías, “El poder de los símbolos/los símbolos en el poder: Teosofía y “mayanismo” en Yucatán (1922–1923)” pp. 179–212 Google Scholar in Relaciones XXIX: 115 (Summer 2008).

¹⁴ Guzmán, Miguel Aguillón, La enseñanza antirreligiosa en México (Veracruz: Ediciones Antorcha, 1934), p. 85.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Mexican anticlericals frequently quoted nineteenth century European writers like Hugo, as well as Zola, Marx and Tolstoy. See the “Pensamientos” column of the anticlerical newspaper La Sotana. This column in the 15 November 1929 edition cited Hugo: “El fraile no es hombre más que por la mitad de su cuerpo.”

¹⁶ Antinomianists believed that human beings were perfectible on earth. Levy, Leonard, Blasphemy: Verbal Offense against the Sacred, from Moses to Salman Rushdie (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), pp. 136–138.Google Scholar

¹⁷ Arellano, Nélida Flores and Román, América Wences, Doña María de la O. Una mujer ejemplar (Mexico City: Universidad Autònoma de Guerrero and Centro de Estudios Históricos del Agrarismo en México, 1992), pp. 17,Google Scholar 23, 55.

¹⁸ Friedrich, Paul, The Princes of Naranja: An Essay in Anthrohistorical Method (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), pp. 43–45.Google Scholar

¹⁹ “The Religious Crisis in Mexico,” translation of a French Chargé d’Affairs in Mexico report to French Foreign Office, trans, by anon. USSD official, 18 February 1927, RDSRIAM 1910–29 Roll 146 (hereafter “Religious Crisis in Mexico”).

²⁰ Ambassador Sheffield to SOS, 9 August 1926, RDSRIAM 1910–1929, Roll 145.

²¹ Buchenau, , Plutarco Elías Calles, pp. 196–197.Google Scholar

²² On anticlericalism in urban planning, see Newcomer, Daniel, Reconciling Modernity: Urban State Formation in 1940s León, Mexico (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2004), pp. 19–36.Google Scholar

²³ LaFrance, David, Revolution in Mexico’s Heartland: Politics, War and State Building in Puebla 1913–20 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003), pp. 94,Google Scholar 133–34; Cordero, Enrique, Crónicas de Mi Ciudad (Mexico City: n.p., 1966), p. 97.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ridgeway, Stan, “The Cooperative Republic of Tomas Garrido Canabal: Developmentalism and the Mexican Revolution” (unpublished PhD diss., University of North Carolina, 1996), p. 199.Google Scholar

²⁵ Taylor, William, Magistrates of the Sacred: Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 247.Google Scholar

²⁶ Knight, Alan, “The Mentality and Modus Operandi of Revolutionary Anticlericalism,” in Faith and Impiety, ed. Butler, , p. 22.Google Scholar

²⁷ Ayala, Sergio Rivera, “The Dance of the People: The Chuchumbé,” in Colonial Lives: Documents on Latin American History, ed. Boyer, Richard and Spurting, Geoffrey (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).Google Scholar

²⁸ G-2, “Religion: Freedom of Religious Belief and Practice,” RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 40.

²⁹ Moya, Armando Martínez and Castañeda, Manuel Moreno, Jalisco: Desde la Revolución tomo VII: Escuela de la Revolución (Guadalajara: Gobierno del Estado de Jalisco and Universidad de Guadalajara, 1988), p. 203.Google Scholar

³⁰ For the most part, historiography of the devil in Mexico largely ends with Independence. See Cervantes, Fernando, The Devil in the New World: The Impact of Diabolism in New Spain (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

³¹ Muñoz, Ignacio, Verdad y mito de la Revolución Mexicana Relatada por un Protaganista (Mexico City: Ediciones Populares, 1965), p. 220;Google Scholar Archivo Personal de Tomás Garrido Canabal, caja 133, exp. 1.

³² “Informe que Rinde la Delegación Regional de Querétaro-al H. Comité Directiva de la Liga Nacional Defensora de la Libertad,” Archive of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (hereafter AIN AH) Serie Conflictos Religiosos (hereafter CR), Roll 33.

³³ Ibid.

³⁴ Bantjes, Adrian, As if Jesus Walked on Earth: Cardenismo, Sonora and the Mexican Revolution (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1998), p. 17.Google Scholar

³⁵ Abascal, Salvador, Tomás Garrido Canabal: Sin Dios, Sin Curas, Sin Iglesias 1919–1935 (Mexico City: Editorial Tradición, 1987), p. 131.Google Scholar

³⁶ On the importance of the anticlerical imagination, see Bertocci, Philip A., Jules Simon: Republican Anticlericalism and Cultural Politics in France, 1848–1886 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1978), p. 10.Google Scholar

³⁷ Bantjes, , “Negating the Image,” p. 42.Google Scholar

³⁸ Wandel, Lee Palmer, Voracious idols and violent hands: Iconoclasm in Reformation Zurich, Strasbourg, and Basel (New York: Cambridge Uniersity Press, 1995) 11;Google Scholar Arnade, Peter, Beggars, Iconoclasts & Civic Patriots: The Political Culture of the Dutch Revolt (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), pp. 92–93.Google Scholar

³⁹ Various documents, RDSRIAM 1910–29, Roll 143.

⁴⁰ R.H. Tierney, Chairman of the Federation of Catholic Societies to SOS William J. Bryan, 17 October 1914, RDSRIAM 1910–29, Roll 143.

⁴¹ Catholics charged that Apodaca, a distinguished normalista, was a “woman of the underworld.” On the incident, see “Religious Persecution in Guadalajara” appended to R. H. Tierney, Chairman of the Federation of Catholic Societies to SOS William J. Bryan, 17 October 1914, RDSRIAM 1910–29 Roll 143. On Apodaca, see Alicia Mendoza Lozano, “Atala Apodaca, mujer jalisciense, maestra, precursora y veterana de la Revolución Mexicana de 1910,” downloaded 9 January 2009 and Sonia Ibarra Ibarra, “Atala Apodaca,” downloaded 9 January 2009.

⁴² Documents appended to R.H. Tierney, Chairman of the Federation of Catholic Societies to SOS William J. Bryan, 17 October 1914, RDSRIAM 1910–29 Roll 143; Quirk, , Mexican Revolution, p. 60;Google Scholar Comandante Militar de Espita to governor (gov.), 15 June 1915, Archivo General del Estado de Yucatán Serie Poder Ejecutivo (PE) caja 487; LaFrance, , Revolution, pp. 133–134.Google Scholar

⁴³ Rodríguez, Cristóbal, La Influencia del Clero en la América Latina (Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1931), p. 163.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Fallaw, Ben, ‘“Anti-Priests’ vs. Catholic-Socialists in 1930s Campeche: Federal Teachers, Revolutionary Communes, and Anticlericalism,” in Faith and Impiety, ed. Butler, , p. 203.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ Bantjes, Adrian, As If Jesus Walked on Earth: Cardenismo, Sonora and the Mexican Revolution (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1998), p. 13.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ On Amaro’s press, see Meyer, Jean, La Cristiada, 8th ed. (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1983) vol. 2: p. 201.Google Scholar Homenaje del Ejercito al C. General de División Plutarco Elías Calles : 8 de enero de 1930 (Mexico: Secretaría de Guerra y Marina, 1930).

⁴⁷ Figueroa, Julio Ríos, Siglo XX: Muerte y resurrección de la iglesia católica en Chiapas. Dos Estudios Históricos (Mexico City: Programa de Investigaciones Multidisciplinarias sobre Mesoamérica y el sureste, 2002), pp. 95–97;Google Scholar Carreño, Alberto María, Páginas de Historia Mexicana (Mexico City: Ediciones Victoria, 1936), 3:Google Scholar plate facing p. 256; Arzubide, Germán List, Práctica de educación irreligiosa: para uso de las escuelas primarias y nocturnas para obreros (Mexico City: Ediciones Integrales, 1933).Google Scholar On Garrido’s distribution of the List book, see various correspondence in AGN, Archivo Particular de Tomás Garrido Cannabal caja 133 exp. 13.

⁴⁸ On garridista Tabasco’s Utopian dimensions, see Torres Vera, Maria Trinidad, Mujeres y Utopía: Tabasco Garridista (Tabasco: Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, 2001).Google Scholar

⁴⁹ Assad, Carlos Martínez, Los Lunes Rojo: La Educación Racionalista en México (Mexico City: El Caballito and SEP, 1986).Google Scholar

⁵⁰ Adolfo, Y. Paz, G., Gómez and demás of Huajuapam, 4 November 1927,Google Scholar Archivo General de la Nación (AGN) Dirección General de Gobierno (DGG) 2.347 caja 26 expedient (exp.) 48.

⁵¹ Esther Lobato viuda de Barreiro, 15 July 1926, AGN DGG 2.340 caja 38 exp. 13.

⁵² Navarro, Moisés González, Masones y Cristeros en Jalisco (Mexico City: Colegio de México, 2000), pp. 22,Google Scholar 39, 84.

⁵³ See Lugo, Elfego, Catecismo de las Doctrinas Socialistas (Chihuahua City: Imprenta Cooperativa Gran Logia Cosmos Chihuahua, n.d.), attached to 9 March 1935,Google Scholar Lee R. Blohm, Consul Chihuahua to SOS, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 42.

Lugo’s Socialist Ten Commandments are:

• 1.

  1. Amarás a tu prójimo.

• 2.

  2. Santificarás el hogar con tus buenas acciones.

• 3.

  3. Honrarás a tu raza, luchando por su emancipación.

• 4.

  4. No jurarás ante nadie ni por nada.

• 5.

  5. No matarás el tiempo con los vicios y los placeres.

• 6.

  6. No adultarás a nadie ni prevaricarás de tus ideas.

• 7.

  7. No permitarás que disfrute del trabajo tuyo el que nada ha producido.

• 8.

  8. No levantarás ídolos en tu. conciencia.

• 9.

  9. No desearás en el taller, fábrica o el campo, ser el amo, para convertirte en explotador y tirano.

• 10.

  10. No codiarás las riquezas, para no te corrompas.

⁵⁴ Alexander W. Weddell to SOS, 11 March 1927, RDSRIAM 1910–29, Roll 94.

⁵⁵ Tostado, Marcela Gutiérrez, El intento de liberar a un pueblo. Educación y magisterio tabasqueño con Garrido Canabal: 1924–1935 (Mexico City. IN AH, 1991), p. 62.Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Lugo, Catecismo; Lugo, Elfego, Catecismo de las Doctrinas Socialistas. Reimpresión de la genuina Confederación Revolucionaria Michoacana del Trabajo (Morelia, Michoacán: CRMT, June 1934).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Consul San Luis Potosí George Winters to SOS, 8 April 1935, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 42.

⁵⁸ McCullagh, Francis, Red Mexico: A Reign of Terror in America (New York: Louis Carrier, 1928), p. 144;Google Scholar Ejército Popular Libertador, Manifesto, Jefe de Operaciones Militares Guerrero Baraquel Laurences, JOM Oaxaca Juventino Montaño, JOM Puebla Lt. Col. Tiburcio Ballasteros, AINAH CR, Roll 37; Consul George Winters to SOS, 8 April 1935, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 42; Alexander W. Weddell, Consul General Chihuahua to SOS, 11 and 22 March 1927, RDSRIAM 1910–29, Roll 94.

⁵⁹ David 1:3 (March 1936), AINAH CR Roll 38.

⁶⁰ Meyer, La Cristiada, vol. 2 p. 208.

⁶¹ Butler, Matthew, “A Revolution in Spirit?: Mexico, 1910–1940,” in Faith and Impiety, ed. Butler, , p. 10.Google Scholar

⁶² Guajardo, Celso Garza, El Gobierno Revolucionario de Antonio I. Villarreal (Monterrey: Universidad Autònoma de Nuevo León, 1914), pp. 1,Google Scholar 12–13; Hernández, Teodoro, Las Tinajas de Ulúa (Mexico City: Hermida, 1943), pp. 55,Google Scholar 67–68; Muñoz, Fernando Zertuche, ed. and intro., Ricardo Flores Magón. El Sueño Alternativo (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Econòmica, 1995), pp. 29–47.Google Scholar

⁶³ Hernández, , Tinajas, pp. 36,Google Scholar 66–68, 92.

⁶⁴ Legislatura XXIX, Año I, Período Ordinario, Número de Diario 13, 6 September 1920, Cámara de Diputados official site, downloaded 1 August 2007.

⁶⁵ Lugo, , Catecismo. Reimpresión, p. 8.Google Scholar

⁶⁶ Ibid., pp. 1,7.

⁶⁷ Ibid., p. 1.

⁶⁸ On revolutionaries’ appropriation of some Catholic concepts and a critique of the notion of a revolutionary sacralized state, see Knight, , “Popular Culture,” pp. 393–444,Google Scholar esp. 395–397, 412,412n91,430–434.

⁶⁹ On the struggle between liberal and revolutionary ideologies, see Boyer, Chris, Becoming Campesinos: Politics, Identity, and Agrarian Struggle in Postrevolutionary Michoacán, 1920–1935 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), pp. 22–23,Google Scholar 166–171.

⁷⁰ Quirk, , Mexican Revolution, pp. 95–96.Google Scholar

⁷¹ Clawson, William Marion, “The Influence of the Catholic Church on the Development of the Mexican Government and Its Relationship to Protestant Missions” (unpublished PhD diss., New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, 1960), pp. 135–185.Google Scholar

⁷² Chargé d’Affaires George T. Summerlin to SOS, 3 February 1923, RDSRIAM 1910-1929, Roll 144. The translation is by State Department staff, of a quotation from El Universal, 2 February 1923.

⁷³ Consul to SOS, 30 October 1926, RDSRIAM 1910-1929, Roll 146.

⁷⁴ Rancaño, Mario Ramírez, El patriarca Pérez. La Iglesia católica apostólica mexicana (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales, 2006).Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Williman, John B., La Iglesia y el Estado en Veracruz, 1840-1940 (Mexico City: SepSetentas, 1976), pp. 105–106, 110, 117, 133–135;Google Scholar Rancaño, Ramírez, Patriarca, pp. 144–150.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Rancaño, Ramírez, Patriarca, p. 135.Google Scholar

⁷⁷ Iverleigh, Austen, “The Politics of Religion in an Age of Revival,” in The Politics of Religion in an Age of Revival: Studies in Nineteenth-Century Europe and Latin America, ed. Iverleigh, Austen (London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 2000), p. 6;Google Scholar Lynch, John, “The Catholic Church in Latin America, 1830–1930,” in Cambridge History of Latin America, ed. Bethell, Leslie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), vol. 4: 527-595, pp. 528–529.Google Scholar

⁷⁸ Uribuzu, Francisco García, Zamora en la revolución (Mexico City: Porrúa, 1970), p. 57;Google Scholar Méndez, Agustino Magaña, La diócesis de Zamora: Memorias (Morelia, Michoacán: Fimax Publicistas, 1983), pp. 110–111.Google Scholar

⁷⁹ Rodríguez, Hernán Menéndez, Iglesia y Poder: Proyectos sociales, alianzas políticas y económicas en Yucatán (1857–1917) (Mérida: Editorial Nuestra America y Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1995), pp. 390–394.Google Scholar

⁸⁰ O’Rourke, Gerald, La persecución religiosa en Chihuahua (1913–1938) (Chihuahua: Editorial Camino, 1991), p. 195.Google Scholar

⁸¹ R.H. Tierney, Chairman of the Federation of Catholic Societies to SOS, 17 October 1914, RDSRIAM 1910–29, Roll 143.

⁸² For claims that the Vatican showed some flexibility on this point, see Rublee’s, Mr., “The Religious Conflict in Mexico and Its Adjustments,” pp. 10–11 Google Scholar in Joseph P. Cotton, Undersecretary of State to SOS, 22 September 1930, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 40.

⁸³ Williman, , La Iglesia, pp. 105–106;Google Scholar Reich, Peter, Mexico’s Hidden Revolution: The Catholic Church in Law and Politics since 1929 (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995), pp. 22–23, 36.Google Scholar

⁸⁴ Reich, , Mexico’s Hidden Revolution, p. 36.Google Scholar Canales’ decision is understandable in light of the wording of the arreglos’ first point:

“The provision of the Law which requires the registration of clergymen does not mean that the Government can register those who have not been named by the hierarchical superior of the religious creed in question, or in accordance with the regulations of that creed.”

Quoted in Bailey, David, Viva Crísto Rey! The Cristero Rebellion and the Church-State Conflict in Mexico (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974), p. 312.Google Scholar

⁸⁵ Rodríguez, Alberto A., El Proceso de la Religión en Mexico (Jalapa: Talleres del Gobierno del Estado de Veracruz, 1930).Google Scholar

⁸⁶ Rodríguez, C., Influencia, pp. 128–129.Google Scholar

⁸⁷ O’Rourke, , Persecución, p. 220.Google Scholar

⁸⁸ Rancaño, Ramírez, Patriarca, p. 55.Google Scholar

⁸⁹ “Religious Crisis in Mexico.”

⁹⁰ “Acerba Animi,” Encyclical of Pope Pius XI, 29 September 1932, Official site of the Holy See, downloaded 19 July 2007.

⁹¹ Niemeyer, E.V. Jr, “Anticlericalism in the Mexican Constitutional Convention of 1916–1917,” The Americas 11:1 (July 1954), pp. 31–49, p. 40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁹² “Religious Crisis in Mexico.”

⁹³ Josephus Daniels to SOS, 15 June 1926, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 44.

⁹⁴ Toro, Alfonso, La iglesia y el estado en Mexico (Estudio sobre los conflictos entre el clero católico y los goviernos mexicanos desde la independencia hasta nuestros dias) (Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1927), p. 361.Google Scholar

⁹⁵ Quirk, , Mexican Revolution, p. 90;Google Scholar Josephus Daniels to SOS, 9 March 1937, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 44. For more examples, see Butler, , “ Sotanas Rojinegras: Catholic Anticlericalism and Mexico’s Revolutionary Schism” pp.14–15.Google Scholar

⁹⁶ Butler, Matthew, “Gods Campesinos? Mexico's Revolutionary Church in the Countryside,” pp.165–184 Google Scholar in Bulletin of Latin American Research 28:2, p. 169.

⁹⁷ “Religious Crisis in Mexico.”

⁹⁸ Schell, Patience, Church and State Education in Revolutionary Mexico (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2003), esp. pp. 20–35.Google Scholar

⁹⁹ Isidro López Ortíz to Tomás Cuervo, 17 September 1935, Archivo Histórico Secretaría de la Educación Pública (hereafter AHSEP) Serie Dirección de Educación Federal (hereafter DEF) de Zacatecas caja 80 exp. 4.

¹⁰⁰ Isidro López Ortíz, 5 January 1932 and 5 June 1932, AHSEP DEF Zacatecas caja 79 exp. 47.

¹⁰¹ My understanding of the SEP has been greatly shaped by Vaughan, Mary Kay, Cultural Politics in Revolution: Teachers, Peasants, and Schools in Mexico, 1930–1940 (Tucson: University of Arizona, 1997).Google Scholar

¹⁰² Ramírez, Rafael, La Escuela Proletaria. Cuatro Pláticas acerca de la Educación Socialista (Mexico City, n.p. 1935), pp. 46–49.Google Scholar

¹⁰³ Celso Flores Zamora to Ildefonso López Ortíz, 24 September 1935, AHSEP DEF Zacatecas caja 8 exp. 4.

¹⁰⁴ My analysis of inspectors’ attitudes is based on numerous correspondence from AHSEP DEF Campeche, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Hidalgo, and Zacatecas. Sandoval, Salvador Camacho, Controversia Educativa entre la ideologia y la Fe: La educación socialista en la histoira de Aguascalientes, 1876–1940 (Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1991) pp. 167–168.Google Scholar

¹⁰⁵ Rafael Villeda to Jefe de Educación Rural (JDER)/SER 27 June 1935, AHSEP DEF Hidalgo (HGO) caja 1367 exp. 0.

¹⁰⁶ José Reyes Castro to DEF, 4 January 1935, AHSEP DEF Coahuila (COA) caja 6039 exp. 39.

¹⁰⁷ Fallaw, “‘Anti-Priests,’” and Fallaw, Ben, “ Kulturkampf or Collusion: Catholics and the Postrev-olutionary Mexican State, 1929–1940” (presented at the New England Council for Latin American Studies conference, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, 18 October 2003).Google Scholar

¹⁰⁸ AHSEP Serie de Escuelas Rural Serie Personal caja 4 exp. 26.

[Date]

Yo, [blank] ante de esa Dir. de Educación Federal, declaro solamente aceptar sin taxativa de ninguna clase el programa de la Escuela Socialista y ser su propagandista y defensor.

Declaro ser ateo, enemigo irrencoliable de la religión católica y romano, y que haré esfuerzos para destruirla desarraigando de las conciencias todo culto religioso y estar dispuesto a luchar contra el clero en el terreno y donde sea necesario.

Declaro estar dispuesto a tomar parte principal en las campañas de desfanatización y atacar a la religión católica, apostólica y romana, en donde quiera que se manifiesto.

Igualmente no permiteré que en mi casa habitación se hagan practicas religiosas de ningún genero, ni permiteré que asista ninguno de mis familiares que dependa de mí, a ningún acto de carácter religioso.

Protesto mi atenta consideración

Mérida, Yuc. [cita]

[nombre]

¹⁰⁹ La Prensa, 24 February 1935, p. 3.

¹¹⁰ Hombre Libre, 27 February 1935, p. 2; Moya, Martínez and Castañeda, Moreno, Jalisco, p. 216.Google Scholar SEP oaths in Hidalgo also required teachers to promise to defend “scientific truth” and the proletariat against their enemies. See Hombre Libre, 27 February 1935, p. 2. The same apparently took place in Zacatecas in the fall of 1934, and in Chihuahua from 1934 to 1937. On Zacatecas, see Hombre Libre, 5 October 1934, pp. 2–3.

¹¹¹ On the ways in which the SEP could become enmeshed in provincial power structures, see Gillingham, Paul, “Ambiguous Missionaries: Rural Teachers and State Facades in Guerrero, 1930–1950,” Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 22:2 (Summer 2006), pp. 331–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹² Mitchell, Neil M., Agents of Atrocity: Leaders, Followers, and the Violation of Human Rights in Civil War (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), esp. 5–6, 16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹¹³ Vaughan, , Cultural Politics, p. 31.Google Scholar

¹¹⁴ On the struggle within the SEP between supporters and opponents of Garrido Canabal from the perspective of the former, see Luz Mena, José de la, La Escuela Socialista. Su desorientación y fracaso. El Verdadero Derrotero (Mexico City: n.p., 1941), pp. 287–292.Google Scholar

¹¹⁵ Assad, Carlos Martínez, Los sentimientos de la región (Mexico City: Oceana and INEHRM, 2001), pp. 88–89.Google Scholar

¹¹⁶ Reich, , Mexico’s Hidden Revolution, p. 80.Google Scholar

¹¹⁷ He did not include Guanajuato, Campeche, Coahuila, Mexican state, or Guerrero in his tally. MacFarland, Charles, Chaos in Mexico: The Conflict of Church and State (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935), pp. 203–204.Google Scholar

¹¹⁸ Lt. Col. Marshburn, H.E., “Religion-Freedom of Religious Belief and practice,” 12 March 1935, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 42.Google Scholar

¹¹⁹ Blancarte, Roberto, Historia de la Iglesia Católica en México (Mexico City: Colegio Mexiquense y Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2007), p. 39.Google Scholar

¹²⁰ Norweb, R. Henry, Chargé d’Affaires ad interim to SOS, n.d., RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 43.Google Scholar

¹²¹ Norweb, R. Henry, Chargé d’Affaires to SOS, 19 December 1935, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 43.Google Scholar

¹²² Edmund Montgomery to SOS, 18 December 1935, RDSRIAM 1930-39, Roll 43.

¹²³ Daniels, Josephus, “Memorandum of Conversation,” 21 November 1935, RDSRIAM 1930–1939, Roll 43.Google Scholar

¹²⁴ On Yucatán, see Fallaw, Ben, “From Conflict to Accommodation: Modernizing Church-State Relations in Revolutionary-era Yucatan, 1915–1940,” in Yucatan’s Struggle with Modernity ed. Edward Terry, Gilbert Joseph, Eric Baklanoff, and Ben Fallaw (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, forthcoming).Google Scholar On Coahuila, see various consular reports, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 42. On Hidalgo, see Federico A. Corzo, Informe, Annual 20 December 1934, AHSEP DEF Hidalgo caja 940 exp. 36. On Estado de México, see Facius, Antonio Rius, Méjico Cristero (Mexico City: Editorial Patria, 1960) 38;Google Scholar Col. Gordon Johnson to SOS, 25 May 1931, RDSRIAM 1930–39, Roll 24; Archbishop of Mexico to Governor Filiberto Gómez, 25 May 1934, Archivo Histórico del Arzobispado de México (hereafter AHAM) leg. Leopoldo Ruiz.

¹²⁵ Bantjes, Adrian, “Idolatry and Iconoclasm in Revolutionary Mexico: The De-Christianization Campaigns, 1929–1940,” pp. 87–120 Google Scholar in Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 13:1 (Winter 1997), p. 91; Butler, , “The Church,” p. 531.Google Scholar

¹²⁶ Francisco Chavez et al., 25 October 1931, AGN DGG 2.347 caja 3 bis exp. 5.

¹²⁷ Felipe Medel to President, 1 October 1938, AGN DGG 2.331 caja 24a exp. 3210.

¹²⁸ Harper, Kristin, “Revolutionary Tabasco in the Times of Tomás Garrido Canabal, 1922–1935: A Mexican House Divided” (unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Massachusetts, 2004).Google Scholar

¹²⁹ Rugeley, Terry, Of Wonders and Wisemen: Religion and Popular Cultures in Southeast Mexico, 1800–1876 (Austin: University of Texas, 2001), pp. 331–332.Google Scholar

¹³⁰ On how Lombardo Toledano’s tract influenced the 1CAM, see Butler, , “God’s Campesinos?” pp. 169–170.Google Scholar