¹ Gilberto Freyre is the author most associated with the concept of racial democracy. See The Masters and the Slaves [Casa-Grande e Senzala) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1946; New World in the Tropics (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959).

² This practice is reflected in official statistics which distinguish between black “prêto”) and brown “pardo”) classifications, and emphasizes color, rather than racial, differences.

³ de Lacerda, Jean Baptiste, “The Metis, or Half-Breeds, of Brazil,” in Spiller, Gustav, (ed.), Papers on Inter-Racial Problems Communicated to the First Universal Races Congress held at the University of London, July 26–29, 1911 (NY: Negro Universities Press, 1969), p. 382.Google Scholar

⁴ Curtin, Philip D., The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), p. 240.Google Scholar

⁵ Merrick, Thomas W. and Graham, Douglas H., Population and Economic Development in Brazil, 1800 to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979), pp. 84–92;Google Scholar Holloway, Thomas H., “Creating the Reserve Army? The Immigration Program of São Paulo, 1886–1930,” International Migration Review, 12:2 (1978), 187–209.Google ScholarPubMed

⁶ Merrick, and Graham, , Population, Table V–2, p. 92;Google Scholar Beigeulman, Paula, A Formação do Povo no Complexo Cafeeiro: Aspectos Políticos (São Paulo: Livraria Pioneira Editora, 1968), pp. 94–96.Google Scholar

⁷ Fernandes, Florestan, The Negro in Brazilian Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 17;Google Scholar Beiguelman, , Formação do Povo, pp. 110–115.Google Scholar

⁸ Brazil, Census, 1890 and 1940. Florestan Fernandes estimates that the greatest growth occurred between 1910and 1934, when the black population jumped from 26,380 to 90,110. Fernandes, , Negro, p. 61.Google Scholar

⁹ Fernandes, , Negro, p. 11 Google Scholar; Dean, Warren, The Industrialization of São Paulo, 1880–1945, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1969), pp. 49–66.Google Scholar For a fuller discussion, see Andrews, George Reid, “Black and White Workers: São Paulo, Brazil, 1888–1928,” HAHR, 68(August 1988), 491–524.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Henrique Cunha later became an editor of Clarim da Alvorada and organizer at the Clube Negra de Cultura Social.

¹¹ Henrique Cunha, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 20 January 1989.

¹² Lowrie, Samuel H., “O Elemento Negro na População de São Paulo,” Revista do Archivo Municipal de São Paulo, Ano IV, 48 (June 1938), 54.Google Scholar

¹³ A study of registered births between 1925 and 1929 corroborates these residential patterns. The vast majority of Afro-Brazilian births were registered in Bela Vista, with smaller concentrations in Santa Cecilia and Liberdade. Directoría do Serviço Sanitârio do Estado de São Paulo, Boletim Mensal de Estatistica Demographo-Sanitaria de São Paulo, 1925 and 1929. The 1934 school census showed that black students continued to be concentrated in the neighborhood of Bela Vista. Censo Escolar, 1934 in Diario Oficial de São Paulo, 14 June 1936.

¹⁴ For a fuller discussion of Afro-Brazilian communities in these and other neighborhoods, see leda Britto, Marques, Samba na Cidade de São Paulo (1900–1930): Um Exercicio de Resistencia Cultural (São Paulo: FFLCH-USP, 1986), pp. 38–42.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Ibid., pp. 38–40.

¹⁶ Andrews, George Reíd, Blacks and Whites in São Paulo, Brazil, 1888-–988 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), p. 141.Google Scholar

¹⁷ On the origins and early development of the brotherhoods, see Russell-Wood, A.J.R., “Black and Mulatto Brotherhoods in Colonial Brazil: A Study in Collective Behavior.” Hispanic American Historical Review 54:4 (November 1974).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁸ de Amarai, Raul Joviano, Os Prêtos do Rosario de São Paulo (São Paulo: Alarico, 1954).Google Scholar

¹⁹ Progresso, 31 Jan 1932.

²⁰ Andrews, , Black and White Workers, p. 141 Google Scholar; “Lembrança,” A Liberdade, 3 August 1919.

²¹ Andrews, , Blacks and Whites, p. 141.Google Scholar

²² Early Afro-Brazilian social newspapers are a rich source of information on these clubs that have yet to be fully explored. The most complete set available in the United States is a microfilm edited by Mitchell, Michael, The Black Press of Brazil, 1916–1969. (Firestone Library; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, n.d., microfilm).Google Scholar

²³ Eunice Cunha joined the Clube Negra de Cultura Social in the 1930s, where she met her future husband, Henrique.

²⁴ Eunice Cunha, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 20 January 1989.

²⁵ Bandeirante, August 1918; A Sentinella, 10 October 1920.

²⁶ Based on a survey of the activities of fourteen clubs as reported by nine black newspapers between 1916 and 1920. O Menelik, 1916; O Bandeirante, 1918–1919; O Alfinete, 1918, 1921; A Liberdade, 1919–1920; A Sentinella, 1920; A Rua, 1916; O Xauter, 1916; Elite, 1924; O Kosmos, 1922. The organization of the social clubs, which borrowed from the brotherhoods, was, in turn, to become the model for the modern escolas de samba (samba schools).

²⁷ A Liberticide, 3 August 1919. This practice is still common among samba singers today, i.e., Martinho da Vila, Gracia do Salgueiro, Neguinho da Beija-Flor, and Jorginho do Imperio, popular singers of Vila Isabel, Salgueiro, Beija-Flor, and Imperio Serrano escolas de samba in Rio, respectively.

²⁸ See Britto, Samba na Cidade de São Paulo, for a full discussion of the emergence of samba during this era.

²⁹ Andrews, , Blacks and Whites, p. 142.Google Scholar

³⁰ O Estado de São Paulo, 21 June 1930.

³¹ Andrews, , Blacks and Whites, p. 142.Google Scholar

³² O Baluarte, 1904.

³³ Martins, Jose Benedicto, “Os Prêtas e o Progresso,” O Alfinete, 3 September 1918, p. 2.Google Scholar

³⁴ Menelik, 1 January 1916.

³⁵ Silva, Gastao R., “Os Agentes da Policiaem Acção,” Bandeirante, Aprii 1919.Google Scholar

³⁶ Fausto, Boris, Crime e Cotidiano: A Criminalidade em São Paulo, 1880–1924. (São Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1984), p. 52.Google Scholar For Fausto’s full discussion of racial discrimination by the police, see pp. 51–9.

³⁷ Silva, Gastao R., “Os Agentes da Policia em Acção,” Bandeirante, April 1919.Google Scholar

³⁸ On the various group tensions during this period see for example, Wesson, and Fleischer, , Brazil in Transition, p. 9;Google Scholar Levi-Moreira, Silvia, “Ideologia e atuação da Liga Nacionalista de São Paulo (1917–1924)” in Universidade de São Paulo, Revista de Historia (Nova Serie), No. 116, Jan–Jun 1984, pp. 67–74;Google Scholar Maram, Sheldon L., “Labor and the Left in Brazil, 1980–1921: A Movement Aborted,” HAHR 57:2 (1977);Google Scholar Andrews, George Reid, “Black and White Workers: São Paulo, Brazil, 1888–1928,” HAHR 68:3 (1988);Google Scholar McCann, Frank D., “The Formative Period of Twentieth-Century Brazilian Army Thought, 1900–1922,” HAHR 64:4 (1984).Google Scholar

³⁹ The nickname of abolitionist Luiz Gama.

⁴⁰ For a catalog of full publication data for these and other papers included on her companion microfilm, see Ferrara, Miriam Nicolau, A Imprensa Negra Paulista, 1915–1963 (São Paulo: Universidade de São Paulo, FFLCH, 1986), pp. 235–279.Google Scholar Her microfilm, “Jornais da Raça Negra” (1904–1963), 2 rolls, is available at the Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Estudos Brasileiros.

⁴¹ Leite, Jose Correla quoted in Ferrara, Imprensa Negra, p. 56.Google Scholar

⁴² Jose Correia Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 5 January 1989.

⁴³ Leite, Jose Correia, “Valor da Raça,” Clarim, 6 April 1924.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ ibid.

⁴⁵ Leite, Jose Correia, “O Verbo do Preto,” Clarim, 7 December 1924.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ See, for example, “Os Homens Prêtos e a Instrucção,” Progresso, 23 June 1928; de Souza, Luiz, “O Momento,” Clarim, 3 March 1929.Google Scholar

⁴⁷ See especially early editions, Clarim, 1924 through 1928.

⁴⁸ Progresso, 24 March 1929.

⁴⁹ Jose Correia Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 5 January 1989.

⁵⁰ Progresso, 24 March 1929.

⁵¹ Auriverde, 29 Aprii 1929; Progresso, 23 June 1928.

⁵² Mitchell, Michael, “Racial Consciousness and the Political Attitudes and Behavior of Blacks in São Paulo, Brazil,” Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1977, p. 126.Google Scholar

⁵³ Progresso, 7 September 1928.

⁵⁴ Speech reprinted in A Gazeta 25 August 1928, cited in Mitchell, , “Racial Consciousness,” p. 149 Google Scholar; Progresso 19 August 1928.

⁵⁵ Progresso 24 March 1929.

⁵⁶ Progresso, 24 March 1929.

⁵⁷ Henrique Cunha, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 20 January 1989; Fernandes, Florestan, A Integração do Negro na Sociedade de Clases, vol. 2 (São Paulo: Editora Atica, 1978), p. 14.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ dos Santos, Manoel Antonio, “Trajectòria do Ideal,” Tribuna Negra, September 1935.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ Jose Correia Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 5 January 1989.

⁶⁰ Progresso, 16 December 1929; 24 March 1929; see also Andrews, , Blacks and Whites, pp. 137–138 Google Scholar, on the Annunciation of Brazilian Racism.

⁶¹ See, for example, Clarim, September 1930.

⁶² The first installment of “O Mundo Negro” appeared in Clarim 1 December 1930.

⁶³ The sacrifice of many blacks in the Paraguayan War weighed heavily in shaping this position. Jose Correia Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 7 January 1989.

⁶⁴ Progresso, 12 October 1928.

⁶⁵ Progresso, 24 February 1929; 28 April 1929; 23 June 1929.

⁶⁶ Progresso, 15 November 1930.

⁶⁷ Progresso, 24 February 1929.

⁶⁸ Freyre, Gilberto, “Human Factors Behind Brazilian Development,” Progress (Winter 1951–52); reprint, Ipswich, Great Britain: W.S. Cowell, Ltd., n.d., p. 6.Google Scholar

⁶⁹ Progresso, 24 February 1929.

⁷⁰ O Clarim, 3 February 1929.

⁷¹ Clarim, April-August 1929.

⁷² “O problema do negro brasileiro e o da integralização absoluta, completa, do Negro em toda a vida brasileira (politica, social, religiosa, economica, operaria, miltar, etc.) deve ter toda formação e toda aceitação em ludo e em toda parte, dadas as condiçòes competentes, physicas, technicas, intellectuaes e moraes, exigidas para a igualdade perante a lei.” O Clarim, 9 June 1929.

⁷³ Erickson, Kenneth, The Brazilian corporative State and Working-Class Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), p. 2 Google Scholar; Nathaniel Leff describes this type of patronage system as “clien-telistic politics.” Leff, Nathaniel H., Economic Policy-Making and Development in Brazil, 1947–1964 (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968), p. 120.Google Scholar

⁷⁴ Rachum, Ilan, “Feminism, Woman Suffrage, and National Politics in Brazil: 1922–1937,” Luso-Brazilian Review 14:1 (Summer 1977), 118–134.Google Scholar

⁷⁵ Williams, Margaret Todaro, “Integralism and the Brazilian Catholic Church,” HAHR 54:3 (August 1974), 431–452.Google Scholar

⁷⁶ Francisco Lucrecio, Secretary General of the Frente Negra Brasileira, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989; A Voz da Raca, March 1933–November 1937.

⁷⁷ Diario de São Paulo, 18 December 1931, p. 12; Mitchell, , “Racial Consciousness,” p. 131;Google Scholar Arlindo Veiga dos Santos cited in Fernandes, , A Integração do Negro na Sociedade de Classes, 2: 43–4.Google Scholar Arlindo Veiga and Francisco Lucrecio also recalled breaking the “footing” taboo. “Footing” was an ambulatory form of “cruising”; young people strolled around the downtown plazas on weekends for social meetings. Afro-Brazilians were made to feel unwelcome, and generally did not frequent the public parks. Frente Negra followers broke this taboo by urging its members to “foot” around the parks. Francisco Lucrecio, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989; Arlindo Veiga dos Santos quoted in Fernandes, , Integração, 2: 43.Google Scholar It should be noted that this information is based solely on Frente Negra sources. This researcher has been unable to find corroborating sources to prove that this type of protest was organized FNB action.

⁷⁸ Progresso, 31 January 1932.

⁷⁹ Marcello Orlando Ribeiro, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989. Orlando was a beneficiary of the Frente Negra’s training program, and eventually became a translator on the police force.

⁸⁰ Aristedes Barbosa, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 21 January 1989.

⁸¹ Mitchell, Michael, “Racial Consciousness,” p. 131.Google Scholar

⁸² Membership estimates are highly tentative as no documentation has been located for actual membership data. The original “Livrao,” in which Frente Negra membership records were kept, was destroyed by a leaky roof in the mid-1980s. Although A Voz da Raça attests to an extensive membership, it was a Frente Negra publication and may have inflated figures. Francisco Lucrecio, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989.

⁸³ I wish to thank Dr. Michael Mitchell for his insight into Arlindo Veiga’s political perspective. Veiga was a traditionalist to the point of supporting the restoration of the monarchy (the regime responsible for abolition), partly due to his upbringing by a Catholic congregation during his youth.

⁸⁴ Jose Correla Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 5 January 1989; Francisco Lucrecio, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989; Mitchell, , “Racial Consciousness,” p. 135 Google Scholar; Clarim, March 1932.

⁸⁵ Lawyer J. Guaranà Santana founded an anti-Vargas socialist group commonly known as the Black Legion in 1932, two months before the São Paulo revolt. In 1933, he began publishing Brasil Novo, a weekly socialist newspaper. Brasil Novo, 3 April 1933; Henrique Cunha, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 20 January 1989.

⁸⁶ Cultura, January 1934; Henrique and Eunice Cunha, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 20 January 1989.

⁸⁷ Aristides Barbosa went on to edit an Afro-Brazilian newspaper.

⁸⁸ Aristides Barbosa, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 21 January 1989.

⁸⁹ Ibid.

⁹⁰ Jose Correia Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 7 January 1989.

⁹¹ Erickson, Kenneth, Brazilian Corporative State, p. 22.Google Scholar

⁹² Arlindo Veiga dos Santos campaigned to become a delegate to the Constituent Assembly in 1933, and Francisco Lucrecio ran for another office several years later. Both campaigns were unsuccessful. A Voz da Raça, 29 April 1933, 20 May 1933; Francisco Lucrecio, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989.

⁹³ Levine, Robert M., The Vargas Regime: The Critical Years: 1934–1938 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), pp. 138–158.Google Scholar

⁹⁴ Aristìdes Barbosa, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 21 January 1989.

⁹⁵ Jose Correia Leite, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 7 January 1989.

⁹⁶ Progresso, 24 November 1929.

⁹⁷ Ibid.

⁹⁸ Andrews notes the same practice in Kosmos during the 1920s, Blacks and Whites, p. 142.

⁹⁹ Progresso, 31 January 1932.

¹⁰⁰ Gonzalez, Lelia, “The Unified Black Movement: A New Stage in Black Political Mobilization,” in Fontaine, Pierre-Michel, ed., Race, Class and Power in Brazil (Los Angeles: UCLA, Center for Afro-American Studies, 1985), pp. 120–134.Google Scholar

¹⁰¹ The author visited Brazil after the abolition centennial in 1988 for a series of meetings between African Americans and Afro-Brazilians in São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and Maranhao. The common theme expressed in each state was that abolition had not freed Afro-Brazilians from social slavery, and that the struggle for true freedom would continue.

¹⁰² Francisco Lucrecio, interview by author, Tape recording, São Paulo, 10 January 1989.