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Sleight of Hand: Brazilian and American Authors Manipulate the Brazilian Racial Situation, 1910–1951

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

Leslie B. Rout Jr.
Leslie B. Rout Jr.*
Affiliation:
Michigan State UniversityEast Lansing, Michigan
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Extract

In June, 1908, Sir Harry Johnston, explorer, historian, diplomat and African colonial administrator, wrote to Theodore Roosevelt expressing a desire to come to the New World. In Johnston’s own words,

What I want to learn is the present condition and possible prospects of the Negro in North America, the West Indies and tropical South America.

This English Lord had written extensively about blacks in Africa, and while his knowledge of racial and historical conditions in the two Americas was hardly profound, his reputation opened doors that might otherwise have been hermetically sealed. Roosevelt’s reply was recognition of this fact:

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 29 , Issue 4 , April 1973 , pp. 471 - 488
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 1973

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References

1 Johnston, Alex, Life and Letters of Sir Harry Johnston (New York, 1939), p. 265 Google Scholar.

2 Ibid., p. 265. Among others, Sir Harry had also written History of a Slave (1889), A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races (1889), The Nile Forest (1903) and Liberia (1906).

3 Evidence on this point is found in Oliver, Roland, Sir Harry Johnston and the Scramble for Africa (New York, 1969), pp. 197–198 Google Scholar.

4 Sir Johnston, Harry H., The Negro in the New World (London, 1910), p. iii Google Scholar, Introduction.

5 Alex Johnston, p. 280.

6 Sir Koster, Henry, Travels in Brazil. Edited by Harvey Gardiner, C. (Carbondale, 1966), p. 178 Google Scholar, and Sir Harry Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 89. Evidence that this “law” was sporadically enforced may be seen in Maria Dundas Graham, Journal of a Voyage To Brazil and Residence There part of the Years 1821, 1822, 1823. A Praeger Reprint (New York, 1969), pp. 197–198.

7 The Negro in the New World, p. 98.

8 The same observation is made in Koster, p. 178. Compare with The Negro in the New World, p. 94.

9 This group would include such historians as Frank Tannenbaum, Stanley Elkins and Herbert Klein. Criticism of the approach of these authors by name is found in Sio, Arnold, “Interpretations of Slavery: The Slave States in the Americas,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, III, #3 (April, 1965), pp. 289–91 and pp. 306–308 Google Scholar, Goveia, Elsa V., “Comment on Anglicanism, Catholicism and the Negro Slave,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, VIII, #3 (April, 1966), pp. 328–330 Google Scholar, Harris, Marvin, The Pattern of Race in the Americas (New York, 1964), pp. 65–70, 75 Google Scholar, and Degler, Elsa V., Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971), pp. 19–21 Google Scholar.

10 The Negro in the New World, p. 99.

11 Ibid., p. 100.

12 Ibid., p. 106.

13 Ibid., pp. 108–109.

14 Ibid., p. 100. The word “preto” in Portuguese, means black, and will be used in this study to designate persons of predominately African origin. While socially, other persons may be considered pretos, and some persons who are very dark need not be so considered, many of the Brazilian authors during the 1900–1930 period are speaking essentially from a biological perspective. The term “Afro-Brazilian” is used to refer to Mulatos and Metos collectively.

15 Refer to footnote 12.

16 Ramos, Arthur, The Negro in Brazil (Washington, D. C, 1939), p. 172 Google Scholar, Freyre, Gilberto, Order and Progress: Brazil from Monarchy to Republic. First American Edition (New York, 1970), p. 178 Google Scholar, and Freyre, Gilberto, Brazil: An Interpretation (New York, 1945), p. 104 Google Scholar. On the other hand, the well-known Brazilian historian, Edison Carneiro, a mulatto himself (personal interview, Rio de Janeiro, January 28, 1970), argued that to consider Nilo Peçhana an Afro-Brazilian was a “joke.” White Brazilians might consider Peçhana a colored man, but not mulatos escuros (dark mulattoes) or prêtos (blacks).

17 The Negro in the New World, p. 106.

18 Sir Johnston, Harry H., The Backward Peoples and Our Relations with Them (London, 1920), p. 21 Google Scholar, and Johnston, Harry H., “Racial Problems and the Congress of Races,” Contemporary Review, C, #46 (August, 1911), pp. 154–155 Google Scholar.

19 Lacerda, Jean Baptiste de, “The Metis, or Half-Breeds of Brazil,” from Spiller, Gustave, ed., Papers on Interracial Problems (London, 1911), p. 379 Google Scholar. The paper was given in French, so that Lacerda’s name is presented in that fashion. In Portuguese, it is João Baptista de Lacerda. This is how it will appear throughout the work.

20 Ibid.

21 Ibid.

22 Ibid.

23 Oliveira Lima, Manoel de, The Evolution of Brazil Compared with that of Spanish and Anglo-Saxon America (Stanford, 1914), pp. 38–39 Google Scholar.

24 Ibid., p. 40.

25 Ibid.

26 Lloyd, Reginald, ed. Impressões do Brasil no século vinte (London, 1913), p. 57 Google Scholar. Roquette-Pinto also predicted the disappearance of the Brazilian black as a physical type to be found in that country.

27 Ibid.

28 lbid., p. 115.

29 Ibid.

30 Denis’, complete work was Le Brésil au XXe siècle (Paris, 1909). Translated into English by Miall, Bernard, it appeared as Brazil (London, 1911), p. 326 Google Scholar.

31 Cunha, Euclides da, Contrastes e Confrontos (Opôrto, 1923), p. 221 Google Scholar, and Cunha, Euclides da, Rebellion in the Backlands. Translated by Putman, Samuel (Chicago, 1944), pp. xv-xvi Google Scholar, Introduction, and pp. 85–86. Graça Aranha, José Pereira da, Canaã. 11a edição revista (Rio de Janeiro, 1959), pp. 91–92, 168, 170, 174–175, 260, 262–264 Google Scholar.

32 Torres, Alberto, O problema nacional brasileiro (Rio de Janeiro. 1914), pp. 73 and 75 Google Scholar.

33 Prado, Paulo, Retrato do Brasil, 6° edição (Rio de Janeiro, 1962), pp. 111–112, 160–161 Google Scholar.

34 Oliveira Vianna, Francisco José de, Evolução do povo brasileiro, 2a edição (São Paulo, 1933), p. 172, 191–194 Google Scholar, and Oliveira Vianna, Francisco José de, Raça e Assimilação. 2a edição augementada (São Paulo, 1934), pp. 172–173, 279–284 Google Scholar.

35 Vianna Moog, Clodomir, Bandeirantes and Pioneers, 2nd edition (New York, 1964), pp. 157 and 160 Google Scholar.

36 Romero, Sylvio, História de literatura brasileira, 6a edição, I (Rio de Janeiro, 1960), pp. 100–101 Google Scholar and Romero, Sylvio, O Brasil social (Rio de Janeiro, 1907), pp. 26, 29 Google Scholar. Diniz, Almachio, História racial do Brasil, (São Paulo, 1934), pp. 143–144, 149, 331, 336, especially 373, 374 Google Scholar.

37 The Negro in the New World, p. 100.

38 This is in Decree #528, issued June 28, 1890. A prospective immigrant of African blood had to obtain a special congressional order at least until 1908.

39 Freyre, Gilberto, Order and Progress, pp. 202–203 Google Scholar. See also Metall, R. A. and Paranhos do Silva, M., “Equality of Opportunity in a Multi-Racial Society: Brazil,” International Labour Review, XCIII, #5 (May, 1966), p. 493 Google Scholar.

40 Freyre, Gilberto, Order and Progress, p. 202 Google Scholar.

41 João Baptista de Lacerda, p. 382, wrote that following abolition, the prêtos were exposed to “all kinds of destructive agencies,” Ibid. In Impressões do Brasil, p. 116, Pierre Denis is quoted as saying that “Alcohol is their (“os negros”) only necessity.”

42 Bradford Burns, E., ed., Perspectives on Brazilian History (New York, 1967), p. 37 Google Scholar.

43 Vasconcelos, José, La Raza Cósmica-Ensayos. Edición Segunda (Mexico, D. F., 1948), pp. 30–31 and pp. 53–54 Google Scholar.

44 Elliott, Lillian E., Brazil: Today and Tomorrow, revised edition (New York, 1922), pp. 109, 186–187 Google Scholar, Cooper, Clayton S., The Brazilians and their Country (New York, 1917), pp. 292–293, 352 Google Scholar and James, Herman, Brazil After a Century of Independence (New York, 1925), pp. 260–261 Google Scholar. None of these works discuss the racial situation in any depth. Wright, Marie R., The New Brazil. Second edition (Philadelphia, 1908), pp: 35–37 Google Scholar, makes a few comments about slavery, but none at all about the post-abolitíon situation.

45 Nash, Roy, The Conquest of Brazil (New York, 1926), p. 154 Google Scholar.

46 Refer to footnote #4.

47 Ibid.

48 Ibid., pp. 157 and 160.

49 Ibid., p. 160.

50 Ibid., p. 166. Compare with Bryce, James Viscount, South America: Observations and Impressions (New York, 1912), p. 480 Google Scholar, who wrote “Brazil is the one country in the world, besides the Portuguese colonies in Africa in which fusion of the European and African races is proceeding unchecked by law or custom.”

51 Roy Nash, p. 166.

52 Ibid.

53 Bilden, Rüdiger, “Brazil, Laboratory of Civilization,” The Nation, CXXVIII, #3315 (January 16, 1929), p. 73 Google Scholar.

54 Ibid.

55 Ibid.

56 Williams, Mary W., “The Treatment of Negro Slaves in the Brazilian Empire,” Journal of Negro History, XV, #3 (July, 1930), p. 355 Google Scholar.

57 Ibid., p. 336.

58 See for example, Dom Pedro the Magnanimous: Second Emperor of Brazil (Chapel Hill, 1937)Google Scholar.

59 Mary W. Williams, p. 336, and footnote 25 of this study.

60 The Negro in the New World, p. 99.

61 Expilly, Charles, Mulberes e Costumes do Brasil. Introdução, prefacio e notas de Gastão Penolva (São Paulo, 1943), pp. 149, 280–281 Google Scholar.

62 Mary W. Williams, p. 325.

63 Rüdiger Bilden, p. 74.

64 Nelsen, Margaret, “The Negro in Brazil as Seen through Chronicles of Travellers,” Journal of Negro History, XXX. #2 (April, 1945), p. 218 Google Scholar.

65 Herring, Hubert, Good Neighbors: Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Seventeen other Countries (New Haven, 1941), p. 135 Google Scholar.

66 See Lowrie, Samuel H., “Racial and National Intermarriage in a Brazilian City,” American Journal of Sociology, LXIV (March, 1937), pp. 684–707 Google Scholar, Kelsey, Vera, Seven Keys to Brazil, revised edition (New York, 1941), pp. 24, 55–56, and 62 Google Scholar, and Franklin Frazier, E., “Some Aspects of Race Relations in Brazil,” Phylon, III, 3rd Quarter (1942), pp. 287–295 Google Scholar. In addition, as early as 1921 Stoddard, Lothrop, The Rising Tide of Color (New York, 1921), p. 115 Google Scholar, had argued that a distinct color line existed in Southern Brazil.

67 Hunnicutt, Benjamin, Brazil: World Frontier (New York, 1949), p. 12 Google Scholar.

68 Landes, Ruth, City of Women (New York, 1947), p. 6 Google Scholar. The official also declared that Brazil’s political backwardness was “due entirely to our Negro blood.” Ibid.

69 Gordon, Eugene, An Essay in Race Amalgamation. Ministry of Foreign Relations, Cultural Division (Rio de Janeiro, 1954), pp. 10–11, and 16 Google Scholar.

70 Constitutional Decree #7967 of September 18, 1945.