Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T17:07:54.910Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Race, Colonial Exploitation and West Indian Immigration in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico, 1800-1850

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

Jorge L. Chinea
Jorge L. Chinea*
Affiliation:
Mankato State University, Mankato, Minnesota
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

“Unlike some Latin American mainland societies which still contain large numbers of indigenous peoples,” Jorge Duany observed, “Caribbean societies are immigrant societies almost from the moment of their conception.” Médéric-Louis-Élie Moreau de Saint- Méry likened the latter to “shapeless mixtures subject to diverse influences.” Their population, Dawn I. Marshall reminds us, “is to a large extent the result of immigration—from initial settlement, forced immigration during slavery, indentured immigration, to the present outward movement to metropolitan countries.” Throughout their history, David Lowenthal noted, limited resources and opportunities kept West Indian societies in a constant state of flux, impelling continuous transfers of people, technology, and institutions within the area. Despite the frequency and importance of these population movements, the bulk of scholarship on American migration history has traditionally concentrated on areas favored by European settlement. Moreover, the overwhelming quantity of research on immigration to the United States, Canada, Argentina, and Brazil has tended to overshadow the study of similar processes in other American regions. Due to its historical association with the arrival of involuntary settlers, migratory currents in the Caribbean have been too narrowly identified with bondage, penal labor and indentured workers. Nowhere is the imbalance more conspicuous than in the study of trans-Caribbean migratory streams during slavery. Discussions on pre-1838 population shifts have centered largely on inter-island slave trading and the exodus prompted by Franco-Haitian revolutionary activity in the Caribbean. The parallel legacy of motion hinted by Neville N.A.T. Hall's “maritime” maroons and Julius S. Scott's “masterless” migrants has attracted noticeably less attention.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 52 , Issue 4 , April 1996 , pp. 495 - 519
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 1996

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Duany, Jorge, “Ethnicity in the Spanish Caribbean: Notes on the Consolidation of Creole Identity in Cuba and Puerto Rico, 1762–1868,” Ethnic Studies 6:2–3 (February 1985), 100–01.Google Scholar

2 Moreau de Saint-Méry, Médéric-Louis-Élie, “Whites in a Slave Society [1797],” in Comitas, Lambros and Lowenthal, David, eds., Slaves, Freemen, Citizens: West Indian Perspectives (New York: Anchor Books, 1973), p. 53.Google Scholar

3 Marshall, Dawn I., “The History of Caribbean Migrations,” Caribbean Review, 11:1 (Winter 1982), 6.Google Scholar

4 Lowenthal, David, West Indian Societies (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. 29–31;Google Scholar see also Proudfoot, Malcolm J., Population Movements in the Caribbean (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1950), pp. 13–22.Google Scholar

5 Eltis, David, “Free and Unfree Transatlantic Migrations: Some Comparisons,” American Historical Review, 88:2 (April 1983), 251–79;CrossRefGoogle Scholar see also Brana-Shute, Rosemary and Hoefte, Rosemarijin, eds., A Bibiliography of Caribbean Migration and Caribbean Immigrant Communities (Gainesville: Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, 1983).Google Scholar

6 For slave trading see Nadal, Roberto, Inter-Island Slave Trade in the British Caribbean (Madison: University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 1980);Google Scholar the Franco-Haitian diaspora in the Caribbean is studied in Debien, Gabriel, “Réfugiés de Saint-Domingue Expulsés de la Havane en 1809,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 35 (1978), 3–56;Google Scholar Abenon, Lucien Réne and Pauphite, Maiotte, Les Guadelopeens refugiés a Saint Pierre de 1794 á 1796 (Martinique: Centre d’Art Musée Paul Gaugin, 1990);Google Scholar Juarez, Yolanda H., “La Inmigración Negra de Saint Domingue en la Jurisdicción de Cuba (1798–1809),” in El Caribe en la Encrucijada de su Historia, 1780–1840 (México: Universidad Autónoma de México, 1993);Google Scholar and Morales, José, The Hispaniola Diaspora, 1791–1850: Puerto Rico, Louisiana, and Other Host Societies (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Connecticut, 1986).Google Scholar

7 Hall, Neville N.A.T., “Maritime Maroons: Grand Maroonage from the Danish West Indies,” William and Mary Quarterly, 42:4 (October 1985), 453–475;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Scott, Julius S., The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution (Ph.D. Dissertation, Duke University, 1986).Google Scholar

8 Critical analyses of the major works can be found in de Sánchez, María Dolores Luque, “Aportaciones y Apropiaciones Extranjeras: Los Inmigrantes en la Historiografía Puertorriqueña,” Op. Cit.: Boletín del Centro de Investigaciones Históricas Núm. 4 (1988–89), 57–79;Google Scholar Portillo, Mariano Negrón and Mayo Santana, Raúl, “Trabajo, Producción y Conflictos en el Siglo XIX: Una Revisión Crítica de las Nuevas Investigaciones Históricas en Puerto Rico,” Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 24:3–4 (1985)Google Scholar, 470–97; and García, Gervasio Luis, La Nueva Historiografía Puertorriqueña, Nuevos Enfoques, Viejos Problemas: Reflección Crítica sobre la Nueva Historia (Río Piedras: CEREP, 1983).Google Scholar

9 Efforts to assess their participation can be found in Rodríguez, Elí Oquendo, Immigración Extranjera y Cambio Social en Guayama, 1815–1850 (M.A. thesis, Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1986);Google Scholar and Morales, The Hispaniola Diaspora.

10 Zavala, Silvio, “Los Trabajadores Antillanos,” in his Estudios Indianos (México: Edición del Colegio Nacional, 1948), 285–306.Google Scholar

11 López, Adalberto, “The Evolution of a Colony: Puerto Rico in the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries,” in his edited work, The Puerto Ricans: Their History, Culture, and Society (Rochester, Vermont: Schenkman Books, Inc., 1980), 25–47.Google Scholar

12 Williams, Eric, From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean, 1492–1969 (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 38.Google Scholar

13 García, José Gabriel, Compendio de la Historia de Santo Domingo. 3rd. ed. (Santo Domingo: G. Hermanos, 1893–1900)Google Scholar, quoted in Escudero, Antonio Gutierrez, Población y Economía en Santo Domingo (1700–1746) (Sevilla: Excma Diputación Provincial, 1983), 26.Google Scholar

14 Cantos, Ángel López, “El Comercio Canario-Puertorriqueño: Cien Años de su Historia,” Jahrbuch für Geschichte Von Stoat, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Lateinamerikas, 14(1977), 80–81;Google Scholar Picó, Fernando, Historia General de Puerto Rico (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1986), 99.Google Scholar

15 “Memoria de D. Alejandro O’Reylly Sobre la Isla de Puerto Rico,” in Caro Costas, Aida R., Antología de Lecturas de Historia de Puerto Rico(Siglos XV-XVIII) (San Juan: M. Pareja, 1972), 385–416;Google Scholar the vicissitudes of agricultural production are examined in García, Juana Gil Bermejo, Panorama Histórico de la Agricultura en Puerto Rico (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1970).Google Scholar

16 y Lasierra, Fray Agustín Iñigo Abad, Diario del Viaje a la América (Caracas: Banco Nacional de Ahorro y Préstamo, 1974)Google Scholar, cited in Carrión, Arturo Morales, “El Reflujo en Puerto Rico de la Crisis Domínico-Haitiana, 1791–1805,” Revista Eme-Eme: Estudios Dominicanos, 27 (Noviembre-Diciembre 1976), 22.Google Scholar

17 y Toste, Cayetano Coll, “Aspecto General de la Civilización de Puerto Rico en 1797, desde el Punto de Vista Moral y Material, y Breve Estudio Comparativo entre el Estado de Cultura de Aquella Época y el Actual,” Boletín Histórico de Puerto Rico, 1 (1914), 164.Google Scholar

18 Ramírez, Bibiano Torres synthesizes this period in La Isla de Puerto Rico (1765–1800) (San Juan: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, 1968);Google Scholar most of the reform measures are discussed in Ortíz, Altagracia, Eighteenth-Century Reforms in the Caribbean: Miguel de Muesas, Governor of Puerto Rico, 1769–76 (East Brunswick: Associate University Press, 1983), passimGoogle Scholar; see also, Cambre Mariño, Jesús, “Puerto Rico bajo el Reformismo Ilustrado,” Revista de Historia de América, Núms. 73–74 (Enero-Diciembre 1972), 53–73.Google Scholar

19 Vales, Luis González, “The Eighteenth-Century Society,” in Carrión, Arturo Morales, Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (New York: W W. Norton & Company, 1983), pp. 47–48.Google Scholar

20 Picó, , Historia, pp. 47–57;Google Scholar see also Hulme, Peter and Whiteman, Neil L., eds., Wild Majesty: Encounters with Caribs from Columbus to the Present Day (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 38.Google Scholar

21 Watts, David, The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change Since 1492 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 375.Google Scholar

22 Hovey, Sylvester, Letters from the West Indies, Relating Especially to the Danish Islands of St. Croix, and to the British Islands of. Antigua, Barbados and Jamaica (New York: Gould and Newman, 1838), p. 147;Google Scholar see also Curtin, Philip, Death by Migration: Europe’s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth-Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

23 Walters, Donald Joseph, An “Empire of Necessity” : Capital Accumulation on West Indian Plantations and the Problem of Artisan Manufacturing (Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, 1982), p. 24.Google Scholar

24 Coke, Thomas, A History of the West Indies, containing the Natural, Civil and Ecclesiastical History of each Island, vol. 2 (London: A. Paris, 1810), pp. 54–8; 62; 86; 119; 297.Google Scholar

25 Price, Richard, Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1973).Google Scholar

26 Cohen, David and Greene, Jack P., eds., Neither Slave nor Free: Freedmen of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972).Google Scholar

27 Cox, Edward L., Free Coloreds in the Slave Societies of St. Kitts and Grenada, 1763–1833 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), pp. 14–16.Google Scholar

28 Carrión, Arturo Morales, Puerto Rico and the Non-Hispanic Caribbean: A Study in the Decline of Spanish Exclusivism (Río Piedras: University of Puerto Rico, 1952), 81.Google Scholar

29 Scott, 95.

30 Díaz Soler, Luis Manuel, Historia de la Esclavitud Negra en Puerto Rico (Río Piedras: Editorial Universitaria, 1965), 236.Google Scholar

31 Westergaard, Waldemar, The Danish West Indies under Company Rule, 1671–1754 (New York: MacMillan Company, 1917), 160–1.Google Scholar

32 Kesler, Benjamin R., Priceless Heritage: History and Lore of Estate St. George (Frederiksted, St. Croix, 1980), 16.Google Scholar

33 Hartog, Johannes, History of St. Eustatius (Aruba: De Wit, 1976), 59 Google Scholar; 92.

34 Tyson, George F. Jr., “On the Periphery of the Peripheries: The Cotton Plantations of St. Croix, Danish West Indies, 1735–1815,” Journal of Caribbean History, 26:1 (1992), 1–3.Google Scholar

35 Weed, Thurlow, Letters from Europe and the West Indies, 1843–1852 (Albany: Weed, Parsons, & Company, 1866), 362–Google Scholar3.

36 Archivo Histórico General de Puerto Rico, Fondos de los Gobernadores Españoles de Puerto Rico, [abbreviated hereafter as “AGPR, FGPR”], Asuntos Políticos y Civiles, Cónsules y Gobiernos Extranjeros, Filipinas-Guayra, caja 28, entrada 16, December 6, 1822.

37 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos Políticos y Civiles, Esclavos [hereafter cited as “Esclavos”], 1838–39, caja 65, “Estado de los negros Súbditos Yngleses reducidos a la Esclavitud en esta Ysla de Puerto Rico que se han descubierto en Consequencia de las Terminantes ordenes dada a el efecto por el Escmo. Sor. D. Miguel López de Baños Capitán General de la misma,” May 12, 1838.

38 Sonneson, Birgit, Puerto Rico y San Tomás en Conflicto Comercial (M.A. Thesis, Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1973).Google Scholar

39 AGPR, FGPR, Documentos Municipales, Mayagüez, 1814–49, caja 501, “Relación de los Buques que han entrado y salido de este Puerto en el mes de la fecha de este presente año,” August 31, 1825.

40 For a more complete discussion of the collection, tabulation and limitations of the data for this study see Chinea, Jorge L., Racial Politics and Commercial Agriculture: West Indian immigration in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico, 1800–1850 (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1994), pp. 19–22 Google Scholar; 172–222.

41 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos Políticos y Civiles, Extranjeros [hereafter cited as “Extranjeros”], 1817–1818, caja 115a, entrada 28, Núm. 43, “Expediente Sobre Admisión de Colonos Procedentes de Nuevo Orleans,” March 4, 1816.

42 Esclavos, cajas 59–66, passim.

43 María Dolores Luque de Sánchez has calculated that over thirty-nine percent of French colonists emigrating to Puerto Rico between 1778 and 1850 arrived from the Caribbean. See her essay “Con Pasaporte: Francés en el Puerto Rico del siglo XIX (1778–1850),” Op. Cit.: Boletín del Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Núm 3 (1987–1988), 104. See also Carrión, Morales, “El Reflujo” and Morales, , The Hispaniola Diaspora Google Scholar, passim.

44 Acosta, Ursula, “Notas sobre la Inmigración Germánica a Puerto Rico durante el Siglo XIX,” Revista de Historia, Año 1:1 (Enero-Julio 1985), 139–45;Google Scholar Cunill, Pedro, “La Presencia Geohistórica Venezolana en el Caribe insular del Siglo XIX,” in Serbin, A., ed., Geopolítica de las Relaciones de Venezuela con el Caribe (Caracas: Fondo Editorial Acta Científica, 1983).Google Scholar

45 Extranjeros, legajo 1833, caja 115a, entrada 28, “Relación de Extranjeros … de color … de Adjuntas,” November 23, 1833.

46 Extranjeros, 1826–1871, caja 115a, entrada 28, “Relación de los Estrangeros Ecsistentes en esta Capital y sus egidos, con arreglo a la Circular del Gob. de 22 de Octubre del Año Pasado próximo Número 71, a Saber,” Capital, August 31, 1839.

47 Extranjeros, legajo 1833, “Relación de Extranjeros … de color … de Bayamón,” December 12, 1833.

48 Ibid., “Relación de Extranjeros … de color … de Aguada,” May 31, 1834.

49 USNA, file of Vicente Effre.

50 USNA, file of Teodoro Godet.

51 USNA, file of María Francisca Thoins.

52 de Curet, Annie Santiago, Crédito, Moneda y Bancos en Puerto Rico durante el Siglo XIX (Río Piedras: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1989), pp. 8–26;Google Scholar Dietz, James, Economie History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capitalist Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp. 31–32.Google Scholar

53 State Department Consular Dispatches, San Juan, Puerto Rico, vol. II, “Report on the agricultural, commercial, moral and political conditions of Puerto Rico [hereafter cited as [“Consular Dispatches”] May 7, 1842.

54 “Charles Walker’s Letters from Puerto Rico, 1835–1837,” introduction by Scott, Kenneth, Caribbean Studies, 5:1 (April 1965), 42 Google Scholar, 48.

55 Langhorne, Elizabeth, Vieques: History of a Small Island (Vieques, P.R.: The Vieques Conservation and Historical Trust, 1987), pp. 23–32.Google Scholar

56 USNA, files of Jacobo de Castro, Miguel Chevremont, Vicente Antonety and Tomás Fibisola.

57 Scarano, Francisco A., ed., Inmigración y Clases Sociales en el Puerto Rico del Siglo XIX (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1981), p. 43.Google Scholar

58 USNA, files of Juan Fitzpatrick, Juan Bautista Roy, Pedro Fishat and Antonio Festar.

59 Waters, p. 24.

60 Coll, y Toste, , “Aspecto General,” p. 172.Google Scholar

61 Extranjeros, 1817–18, Núm. 43, “Expediente.”

62 USNA, files of Catalina Cierge, William Baxter, Juan Bta. Colinet, José Antonio Cassaigne, Robert Archvald, Jossiah Archvald, Louis Elisee and Francisco Miguel Andrals.

63 Luque de Sánchez, María Dolores, “Por el Cedazo Francés: Puerto Rico en la Correspondencia de los Cónsules de Francia (Siglo XIX),” Op. Cit.: Boletín del Centro de Investigaciones Históricas, Núm I (1985–1986), 54–8.Google Scholar

64 Marazzi, Rosa, “El Impacto de la Inmigración a Puerto Rico de 1800 a 1830: Analísis Estadístico,” Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 18:1–2 (Marzo-Junio 1974), 17.Google Scholar

65 de Còrdova, Pedro Tomás, Memorias Geográficas, Históricas, Económicas y Estadísticas de la Isla de Puerto Rico. Originally published during 1831–33, vol. 2 (San Juan: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, 1968), p. 64.Google Scholar

66 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos Políticos y Civiles, Indice de la Correspondencia, documento Núm. 28, caja 129, 1833–34.

67 Consular Dispatches, “Report.”

68 Campbell, Leon G., “The Foreigners in Peruvian Society during the Eighteenth Century,” Revista de Historia de América, Núms. 73–4 (Enero-Diciembre 1972), 153.Google Scholar

69 Consular Dispatches, “Report.”

70 de Wagenheim, Olga Jiménez, Puerto Rico’s Revolt for Independence: El Grito de Lares (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), p. 17.Google Scholar

71 Goveia, Elsa V., Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands at the End of the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 254.Google Scholar

72 Moitt, Bernard, “Slave Resistance in Guadeloupe and Martinique, 1791–1844,” Journal of Caribbean History, 25:1–2 (1991), 148.Google Scholar

73 Baralt, Guillermo A., Esclavos Rebeldes: Conspiraciones y Sublevaciones de Esclavos en Puerto Rico (1795–1873) (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1981), pp. 17–20.Google Scholar

74 Ibid., p. 161.

75 AGPR, FGPR, Agencias de Gobierno, Seguridad Pública [hereafter cited as “Seguridad”], 1823–25, caja 373, entrada 229. Letter from alcalde M.G. Linares to the Captain General, July 3, 1824.

76 USNA, file of Julián Ansie.

77 AGPR, FGPR, Agencias de Gobierno, Justicia [hereafter cited as “Justicia”], 1829–33, caja 337, entrada 224, “Sumario instruido contra el extrangero James Charlote, Sobre su procedencia en virtud de las ordenes Superiores,” Ponce, December 5, 1828.

78 Seguridad, 1823–25, caja 373, entrada 229, Fajardo, July 25, 1821.

79 Seguridad, Negociado Político, caja 163, “Señales de Varios Individuos Sospechosos,” 1822.

80 AGPR, FGPR, Agencias de Gobierno, Secretaría [hereafter cited as “Secretaría”], caja 362, Bayamón, October 5, 1822.

81 Seguridad, 1823–25, caja 373, entrada 229. Letter from José Rivas, Military Commander of the Western Coast, Mayagüez, to the Captain General, August 13, 1824.

82 Ibid. Letter from the Captain General to the alcaldes of Ponce, Guayama and Patillas, July 10, 1824.

83 Ibid. Letter from the Captain General to the alcalde of Ponce, July 21, 1824.

84 Justicia, 1835–42, caja 338, entrada 224, October 12, 1838.

85 Ibid. Letter from the Captain General to Antonio Cordero, 1st Mayor of San Juan, October 10, 1823.

86 Justicia, 1829–33, caja 337, entrada 224. “Quartel de Manatí, Año de 1823. Sumaria Información Sobre la Parte que dió Dn. Manuel de la Torre, de haver encontrado en el camino de la costa, siete personas sospechosas”; Letter from the Captain General to the Military Commanders and Subdelegates of the Navy, March 3, 1824.

87 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos de Marina, 1823–24. Letter from the Subdelegate of the Navy [of Ponce] to the Captain General, March 8, 1824.

88 Extranjeros, 1817–18. Letter from the alcalde of Mayagüez M.G. Linares to the Captain General, September 25, 1824.

89 Ibid. November 8, 1824.

90 Secretaría, caja 363, September 24, 1825.

91 Extranjeros, 1817–18, Ponce, June 20, 1819.

92 AGPR, FGPR, Cónsules y Gobiernos Extranjeros, Filipinas-Guayra, caja 28, entrada 16. Letter from the Count of Ladernoy to the Governor of Puerto Rico, November 22, 1821.

93 Seguridad, Negociado Político, Negocio de Licencias, 1823.

94 lbid., January 20, 1823.

95 Justicia, 1825–29, caja 336, entrada 224, “Expulsión de Catalina Picar de los pueblos de este con residencia en los del Norte,” June 4, 1825.

96 Ibid. Letter from the alcalde of Barranquitas to the Captain General reporting the number of foreigners in the town, July 3, 1830.

97 Justicia, 1835–42, caja 338, entrada 224, Guayama, September 26, 1839.

98 Extranjeros, legajo 1833, Guayama, August 10, 1840.

99 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos Políticos y Civiles, Emigrados, 1821–37, caja 54, entrada 21, “Relación de extranjeros … de Peñuelas,” August 2, 1821.

100 Extranjeros, legajo 1833, Trujillo Alto, November 6, 1833.

101 Ibid., “Relación de las Personas de color libres Estrangeras que existen en este Partido clasificados según la Circular 450 de Iro de Octubre del Presente Año,” Guayama, November 22, 1833.

102 Extranjeros, legajo 1833, Bayamón, December 2, 1833.

103 “Bando del Gobernador D. Juan Prim, Conde de Reus, contra los Negros” [1848], Boletín Histórico de Puerto Rico, VIII (1921), 366–67.

104 González, Anibal, “La Cuarterona and Slave Society in Cuba and Puerto Rico,” Latin American Literary Review, 8:16 (Spring 1980), 50.Google Scholar

105 AGPR, FGPR, Agencias de Gobierno, Fomento y Comercio, caja 322, entrada 221, núm. 589, Real Junta de Comercio y Fomento. All requests are enclosed in the document “La Sociedad Cabasa y Cia de Cabo Rojo piden permiso al Superior Gobierno para introducir hasta 500 Jornaleros de la Ysla de Curaçao,” 1856.

106 Acevedo, Labor Gómez, “Proyecto para Introducir Colonos Asiáticos en Puerto Rico,” Revista del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, Año III:6 (Enero-Marzo 1960), 41–44.Google Scholar

107 Acta de Junta Pública Efectuado por la Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País en 22 de Enero de 1863 (San Juan: Imprenta del Boletín Mercantil, 1863), 14.

108 AGPR, Obras Públicas, Diversos, caja 77, Junta de Comercio y Fomento, “Acta Ordinaria del Día 29 de Agosto de 1860.”

109 Consular Dispatches, Vol. 8, dispatch No. 33 from consul Louis de Ronceray to the Lewis Cass, Hon., Secretary of State, August 22, 1860; “Ordenanza General de Emancipados” [1859], Boletín Histórico de Puerto Rico, IX (1922), 363–Google Scholar70.

110 Moore, Brian L., “The Social Impact of Portuguese Immigration into British Guiana after Emancipation,” Boletín de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe, Núm. 19 (Diciembre 1975), 3.Google Scholar

111 Parsons, James J., “The Migration of Canary Islanders to the Americas: An Unbroken Current Since Columbus,” The Americas, 39:4 (April 1983), 469.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

112 Cantó, Maria Pilar Pérez, “Intentos de Colonización Blanca en Cuba durante el Siglo XIX,” Revista Internacional de Sociología, Núm. 42:50 (Abril-Junio 1984), 471–501.Google Scholar

113 AGPR, FGPR, Agencias de Gobierno, Diputación Provincial, caja 312, December 14, 1813.

114 “Inmigración de Canarias” [1814], Boletín Histórico de Puerto Rico, VII (1920), 53–54.

115 Parsons, 471.

116 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos Políticos y Civiles, Pasaportes, 1840–47, caja 157, San Juan, April 30, 1842.

117 “Circular Contra la Venta de Gente Emigrada de Islas Canarias” [1841], Boletín Histórico de Puerto Rico, IV (1917), 310.

118 AGPR, FGPR, Asuntos Militares, 1761–1807, caja 240, entrada 151, San Juan, December 14, 1845.

119 AGPR, FGPR, Agencias de Gobierno, Comisión de Estadística, caja 303, “Expediente sobre Fomento de Población Blanca,” Núm 20, June 15, 1844.

120 de Loubriel, Estela Cifre, “Los inmigrantes del siglo XIX: Su contribución a la formación del pueblo puertorriqueño,” Revista del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, Año III:7 (Abril-Junio 1960), 32.Google Scholar

121 Hernández, Pedro, “Los Inmigrantes Italianos de Puerto Rico durante el Siglo XIX,” Anales de Investigaciones Históricas, 3:2 (1976), 14, found a noticeable increase of Italian immigrant families in Puerto Rico after 1870Google Scholar; for pre-1850 arrivals see Marazzi, Rosa Santiago, “La Inmigración de Mujeres Españolas a Puerto Rico en el Periodo Colonial Español,” Homines, 3:1–2 (Enero-Diciembre 1979), pp. 21–32,Google Scholar passim.

122 Bergad, Laird W., Coffee and the Growth of Agrarian Capitalism in Nineteenth-Century Puerto Rico (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983),Google Scholar passim.

123 Picó, Fernando, Libertad y Servidumbre en el Puerto Rico de Siglo XIX (Los jornaleros utuadeños en vísperas del auge del café) (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1979),Google Scholar passim.

124 Carrión, Arturo Morales, Auge y Decadencia de la Trata Negrera en Puerto Rico (1820–1860) (San Juan: Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Puerto Rico y el Caribe/Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, 1978), 73.Google Scholar

125 Acevedo, Labor Gómez, Organización y Reglamentación del Trabajo en el Puerto Rico del Siglo XIX (Propietrarios y Jornaleros) (San Juan: Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, 1970),Google Scholar passim.

126 Secretaría, caja 367, entrada 228, “Presidencia de la Junta de Agricultura, Industria i Comercio del Distrito de Ponce,” September 30, 1869.

127 Quintero Rivera, Angel G., “Cultura en el Caribe: La cimarronería como herencia y utopía,” Estudios Sociales Centroamericanos, Núm. 54 (Septiembre-Diciembre 1990), 85–99.Google Scholar

128 Fergus, Howard A., “Montserrat ‘Colony of Ireland’: The Myth and the Reality,” Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, 70:230 (Winter 1981), 330–38.Google Scholar

129 Goveia, pp. 87–94.