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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 December 2015
Despite the considerable scholarly attention given contemporary interest groups (also known as pressure groups), there are few studies of their governmental influence and operations in a premodern setting. Such studies could tell us much, not only about the historical roots of interest groups, but about governmental processes in premodern nations. Brazil in the nineteenth century is a good subject for such research. With its economy largely based on varied agricultural and raw material export, it was also the scene of incipient industrialization. Under a constitutional monarchy, it had modified representative government, and basic political rights were respected. Nineteenth-century Brazilian interest groups, in addition to illustrating the characteristics of pre-modern interest organizations, strongly influenced governmental decision-making and public opinion and foreshadowed the activities of the much more numerous and varied groups of the twentieth century.
For their helpful comments and advice the author would like to thank James Eddy, Neill Macaulay, J. Ignacio Mendez, and John Hoyt Williams.
1 For the advantages of the use of the term “interest group,” now prevalent, rather than “pressure group,” see Wooten, Graham Interest Groups (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. 76.Google Scholar
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7 While the Law of Free Birth, providing that children born of slave mothers henceforth were to be free under various restrictions, was being debated by Parliament in 1871, factors organized the Agriculture and Commerce Club (Clube da Lavoura e do Coméricio) to rally factors and planters against it. Diário do Rio de Janeiro, July 17, 1871, p. 1. Unsuccessful in blocking the law, the club disbanded. Another factor-created group, the Commercial and Agricultural Association (Associação Comercial e Agrícola) of São Paulo, was active in 1884–1885. Associação Comercial de São Paulo, Relatório da Associação Comercial de São Paulo, Ano de 1895 (São Paulo: Industrial, 1896), pp. 106–108. Factors also dominated the Commercial Association of Pará and the Commercial Center (Centro Comercial) of Rio de Janeiro, set up in 1897 as a rival to that city’s Commercial Association. See Associação Comercial do Pará, Relatórios da Associação Comercial do Pará, 1868–1900, and Centro Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, Atas da Diretoria do Centro Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, 1897–1900, Arquivo da Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro (hereafter cited as AACRJ).
8 For coffee factors, see Sweigart, Joseph E. “Financing and Marketing Brazilian Export Agriculture: The Coffee Factors of Rio de Janeiro, 1850–1888” (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas, 1980).Google Scholar For sugar factors, see Eisenberg, Peter L. The Sugar Industry in Pernambuco, 1840–1910: Modernization without Change (Berkeley: University of California, 1974), pp. 63–79.Google Scholar For rubber factors, see Associação Comercial do Pará, Relatório da Comissão da Praça do Comercio do Pará do Ano de 1898 (Belém: A. Loyola, 1899), p. 21, and Weinstein, Barbara The Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850–1920 (Stanford: Stanford University, 1983),Google Scholar passim.
9 The Commercial Agricultural Association (Associação Comercial Agrícola) of Pernambuco was founded in 1836 and lasted until 1904. However, it functioned initially only as a commodity exchange for sugar, not beginning true interest group activity until 1878. See Associação Comercial Agrícola de Pernambuco, Livra de Atas da Diretoria, Aug. 10, 1877 to Aug. 8, 1892, Arquivo da Associação Comercial de Pernambuco (hereafter cited as AACP).
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12 Bahia, do Estado, Governador Mensagem Apresentada à Assembléia Geral Legislativa na Abertura da Segunda Sessão da Sétima Legislatura pelo Governador do Estado, Severino Vieira (Salvador: Diário da Bahia, 1904), p. 52.Google Scholar
13 Pang, Laura Jarnagin “The State and Agricultural Clubs of Imperial Brazil, 1860–1889” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1981).Google Scholar For their attitudes on slavery see, for example, Club da Lavoura da Villa de Indiatuba to Baron Cotegipe, Indiatuba, Oct. 16, 1880, and Club da Lavoura, Juiz de Fora, to Baron Cotegipe, Juiz de Fora, Jan 26, 1881, Arquivo do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro (hereafter cited as AIHGB), Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe, Lata 76, Docs. 88 and 92.
14 Pang, p. 338. Agricultural clubs also were organized in nearly every município in the sugar zone of Pernambuco in 1883–1884. Hoffnagel, Marc “From Monarchy to Republic in Notheast Brazil; The Case of Pernambuco, 1868–1895” (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Indiana, 1875), pp. 75–76.Google Scholar
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16 Sociedade Auxiliadora da Agricultura de Pernambuco, Relatório Anual Apresentado na Sessão de 4 de Julho de 1878 da Assembléia Gérai pelo Gerente Inácio de Barros Barreto em Ata da Mesma Sessão (Recife; Jornal do Recife, 1878), p. 17.
17 Men of landowner origin overwhelmingly dominated cabinet positions during the Empire. de Carvalho, José Murilo A Construção da Ordem: A Elite Política Imperial (Rio de Janeiro: Campus, 1980), p. 165.Google Scholar
18 Pang, p. 76.
19 Among them the Imperial Institutes of Agriculture of Pernambuco and Sergipe. “Extratos do Relatório do Exm. Sr. Ministro da Agricultura,” Revista Agrícola do Imperial Instituto Fluminense de Agricultura, 13 (1882), 37 and 16 (1885), 122–123.
20 Sometimes considered Brazil’s first industrial interest group, the prestigious Auxiliary Society for National Industry (Sociedade Auxiliadora da Indústria Nacional) was in fact a learned society. Founded in 1828, the “industry” in its title referred not to manufacturing in the modern sense but to any type of economically useful endeavor. Most of its activity was devoted to improving agricultural technology and its support of manufacturing was sporadic and tentative. O Auxiliador da indústria Nacional: Periódico da Sociedade Auxiliadora da Indústria Nacional, 1833–1896; Carone, Edgard O Centro Industrial do Rio de Janeiro e a sua Importante Participação na Economía Nacional (1827–1977) (Rio de Janeiro: Centro Industrial do Rio de Janeiro, 1978), pp. 24,Google Scholar53.
21 Associação Industrial, Relatório Apresentado à Assembléia Geral da Associaçião Industrial em Sessão de 10 de Junho de 1882 pela Diretoria da Mesma Associação (Rio de Janeiro: G. Leuzinger & Filhos, 1882), pp. 26–27; Associação Industrial, Relatório de 1884, p. 8.
22 Centro Agrícola Industrial to Baron Cotegipe, Pelotas, Feb. 18, 1888, AIHGB, Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe, Lata 77, Doc. 19; Brazil, Câmera dos Deputados, Anais do Parlamento Brasileiro, Camera dos Srs Deputados, Terceira Sessão da Vigésima Legislature de 3 de Agôsto a 1 de Setembro de 1888 (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional, 1888), IV, 151–152.
23 See, for example, Sociedade União Comercial dos Varegistas de Sêcos e Molhados em 10 de Agôsto de 1881 pela Diretoria da Mesma Sociedade (Rio de Janeiro: Central, 1881) and Relatório de 1897.
24 Schmitter, pp. 139–140.
25 See, for example, Boletim da Sociedade de Medicina e Cirurgia do Rio de Janeiro 1 (1886) and 2 (1887).
26 For membership, see Revista do Clube de Engenharia, Ano 1, Vol. 8 (1887), 107–119. For policies see Jornal do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro), July 10, 1892, p. 2.
27 For the importance of countervailing or contrary power in interest group politics, see Key, V.O. Politics, Parties, and Pressure Groups (4th ed.; New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1958), pp. 112,Google Scholar 166–167.
28 For the latter two groups, see Associação Industrial, O Trabalho Nacional e Seus Adversários (Rio de Janeiro: G. Leuzinger & Filhos, 1881), pp. 257–258, and Brazil, Câmera dos Deputados, Anais da Câmera dos Deputados, 1888, IV, 144–146.
29 For example, Associação Comercial do Maranhão, Relatório da Exposição do Açúcar e Algodão Feita pela Associação Comercial do Maranhão em 23 de Dezembro de 1883 (São Luis: O Pais, 1884), p. 13; Commercial Association of Bahia and Imperial Institute of Agriculture of Bahia to Brazilian Parliament, Salvador, May 30, 1884, Relatório da Junta Diretora da Associação Comercial da Praça da Bahia, Apresentado e Lido em Sessão da Assembléia Gérai Ordinãria em 23 de Janeiro de 1885 (Salvador: Dois Mundos, 1884), pp. 22–23, 26–29; Commercial Association of Rio de Janeiro to Baron Cotegipe, Rio de Janeiro, Aug. 19, 1887, Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe, A1HGB, Lata 77, Doc. 14; Gazeta da Tarde (Rio de Janeiro), Dec. 10, 1880, p. 2; O Cruzeiro (Rio de Janeiro), Dec. 4, 1880, pp. 1–3 and Dec. 10, 1880, pp. 1–2; Pang, pp. 311, 359.
30 Sociedade Auxiliadora da Agricultura de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1878, p. 50; Associação Comercial de Pernambuco, Relatório da Direção da Associação Comercial Beneficente de Pernambuco, Apresentado à Assembléia Geral da Mesma em o Primeiro de Agôsto de 1868 (Recife: Jornal do Recife, 1868), p. 15; Minutes, meeting of July 6, 1885, Livro de Atas, Associação Comercial Agrícola de Pernambuco, 1877–1892, AACP, p. 122.
31 Almanak Administrativo, Mercantil e Industrial do Rio de Janeiro para 1892 (Almanak Laemmert) (Rio de Janeiro: Tipografía do Brasil, 1892), p. 1106; Revista do Clube de Engenharia, Ano II, Vol. 10 (1888), 21; Associaçião Industrial, Relatório de 1884, pp. 1–3.
32 For a dissenting view of relations between planters and factors, see Pang, pp. 52–68.
33 For traditions of Iberian corporatism, see Newton, Ronald C. “On ‘Functional Groups,’ ‘Fragmentation,’ and ‘Pluralism’ in Spanish-American Political Society,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 50 (Feb. 1970), 1–29 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wiarda, Howard J. “Corporatism and Development in the Iberic-Latin World: Persistent Strains and New Variations,” in The New Corporatism: Social-Political Structures in the lberan World, eds. Pike, Frederick B. and Stritch, Thomas (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University, 1974).Google Scholar
34 Norman, J. Ornstein and Shirley Elder, Interest Groups, Lobbying and Policymaking (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1978), p. 54.Google Scholar
35 For traditional interest group activity, see Smith, Robert Sidney The Spanish Guild Merchant: A History of the Consulado, 1250–1700 (Durham: Duke University, 1940)Google Scholar; Associação Comercial do Porto, Associação Comercial do Pôrto: Resumo Histórico de sua Atividade Desde a Fundação Até ao Ano das Comemorações Centenarias (Porto: Associação Comercial do Porto, 1942), pp. 7–10.
36 Key, p. 165; Bendix, Reinhard Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait (New York: Anchor Books, 1962), pp. 336–337.Google Scholar
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38 See Revista do Clube de Engenharia, Ano I (1887) and Ano II (1888).
39 Ridings, Eugene W. “The Business Elite and the Economic and Urban Integration of Brazil,” SECOLAS Annals: Journal of the Southeastern Council of Latin American Studies, 12 (March 1981), 14–26,Google Scholar and “Interest Groups and Development: The Case of Brazil in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Latin American Studies (London), 9 (Nov. 1977), 225–250.
40 Revista Agrícola do Imperial Instituto Fluminense de Agricultura, 8 (1877), clx, 10 (1879), 35–38, and 13 (1882), 38; Brazil, Ministro da Agricultura, Relatório Apresentado à Assembléia Geral na Terceira Sessão da Décima Sétima Legislatura pelo Ministro e Secretário do Estado dos Negócios da Agricultura, Comércio e Obras Públicas Manuel Buarque de Macedo (Rio de Janeiro: Tipografía Nacional, 1880), I, 139.
41 Sociedade Nacional de Agricultura, Representação da Sociedade Nacional de Agricultura ao Congresso Federal (Rio de Janeiro: Casa Monte Alverne, 1899), p. 3; Poliano, Luís Marques A Sociedade Nacional de Agricultura: Resumo Histórico (Rio de Janeiro: Econômica, 1942), p. 39.Google Scholar
42 Center for Coffee Agriculture and Commerce to Baron Cotegipe, Rio de Janeiro, July 10, 1885, AIHGB, Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe, Lata 90, Doc. 19; Centro da Indústria e Comércio de Açúcar, Crise do Açúcar: Representação e Memorial Apresentado ao Corpo Legislativo da Nação Brasileira pelo Centro da Indústria e Comércio de Açúcar do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional, 1887), p. 43.
43 See Pang, Eul-Soo and Seckinger, Ron L. “The Mandarins of Imperial Brazil,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 14 (March 1972), 215–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
44 They were honored while Presidents of Province in Minutes, general assembly of Dec. 28, 1853, Livro 2 de Atas, AACB, pp. 68-69, and Minutes, meeting of March 9, 1866, Livro 3 de Atas, AACB, p. 83.
45 Love, Joseph L. “Political Participation in Brazil, 1881–1969,” Luso-Brazilian Review, 7 (Dec. 1970), 8.Google Scholar
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48 de Araújo Pinho, José Wanderley Salões e Damas do Segundo Reinado (São Paulo: Martins, 1945), p. 286.Google Scholar For Rio “high society” see Needell, Jeffrey D. A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-the-Century Rio de Janeiro (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1987), pp. 82–115.Google Scholar For Viscount Figueiredo see Ibid., pp. 86–88.
49 Conniff, Michael L. “Voluntary Associations in Rio, 1870, 1870–1945: A New Approach to Urban Social Dynamics,” Journal of lnteramerican Studies and World Affairs, 17 (Feb. 1975), 64–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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51 Correspondence with these men is found in AIHGB, Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe.
52 For example, Viscount Figueiredo to Baron Cotegipe, Rio de Janeiro, Dec. 26, 1879, AIHGB, Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe, Lata 23, Doc. 111 ; Aristides Novis to Baron Cotegipe, Salvador, March 21, 1882, AIHGB, Arquivo do Barão de Cotegipe, Lata 49, Doc. 13.
53 Minutes, meetings of June 20, 1879, and Jan. 17, 1882, Livro 5 de Atas, AACP, pp. 5,52.
54 For example, Minutes, meeting of May 26, 1877, Livro 4 de Atas, AACP, p. 88; Minutes, meeting of Sept. 17, 1861, Livro 3 de Atas, AACB, p. 3.
55 Minutes are found in Imperial Instituto Fluminense de Agricultura, Atas, Oficios, Etc., 1860–1862, ACIRJ, and Revista Agrícola do Imperial Instituto Fluminense de Agricultura, 1869–1891.
56 For example, Minutes, meeting of Nov. 25, 1874, Livro 4 de Atas, AACP, p. 27; Associação Comercial de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1880, p. 5.
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62 For example, Minutes, meeting of July 21, 1873, Livro 3 de Atas, AACP, p. 124; Minutes, meeting of July 7, 1874, Livro 4 de Atas, AACP, p. 11; Minutes, meeting of Nov. 2, 1880, Livro 5 de Atas, AACP, pp. 34–35.
63 da Silva, Miguel Antônio “Agricultura Nacional: Congresso Agrícola do Rio de Janeiro, Congresso Agrícola de Pernambuco,”Revista Agrícola do Imperial Instituto Fluminense de Agricultura, 10 (1879), 3–4.Google Scholar
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68 O Estado de São Paulo (São Paulo), Aug. 31, 1898, p. 1.
69 Novedades (Rio de Janeiro), Nov. 8, 1889, p. 1 and Nov. 14, 1889, p. 1; Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório da Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro do Ano de 1890 (Rio de Janeiro: Montenegro, 1891), pp. 44–45.
70 Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1901, p. 42.
71 Associação Comercial do Rio de Janeiro, Relatório de 1902, p. 45.
72 Associação Comercial de Pernambuco, Relatório de 1883, pp. 115–123.
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76 Jornal de Noticias (Salvador), Nov. 18, 1899, p.l.
77 Associação Comercial do Maranhão, Relatório, Janeiro a Dezembro de 1891 (São Luís: Frías, 1892), p. 4.
78 Minutes, meeting of May 12, 1891, Livro 7 de Atas, AACP, p. 53.
79 David M. Burke to Department of State, Salvador, June 8, 1891, U.S. National Archives/Department of State (NA/DS) Microfilm Series T-331, Despatches from United States’ Consuls in Bahia, 1850–1906, Vol. 6, unpaginated.
80 For national government spending on infrastructure improvement, see Britain, Great Foreign Office, Annual Series of Diplomatic and Consular Reports, No. 504 (1888), p. 57.Google Scholar For provincial spending, see Brazil, Conselho de Ministros, Breve Noticía do Estado Financeiro das Províniís, Organizada por Ordem do Barão de Cotegipe, Presidente do Conselho de Ministros (Rio de Janeiro: Imprensa Nacional, 1887).
81 On public opinion see Topik, Steven The Political Economy of the Brazilian State, 1889–1930 (Austin: University of Texas, 1987), pp. 142–143.Google Scholar Milestones indicating acceptance of protection were the Tariff of 1888, in which duties on imports competing with goods made in Brazil were automatically increased when the exchange rate rose, and the “markedly protective” tariff of 1900. Armstrong to Department of State, de Janeiro, Rio June 1, 1889, United States Reports from Consuls, 30, No. 105 (May-Aug. 1889), 218–222 Google Scholar; Stein, Stanley J. The Brazilian Cotton Manufacture: Textile Enterprise in an Underdeveloped Area, 1850–1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1957), p. 85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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83 Ibid., p. 148. The Centro Industrial do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, was created in 1904. There was no carryover of directors or other leaders from the Auxiliary Society for National Industry, whose possessions were inherited by the Centro. Minutes, meeting of Aug. 18, 1904, Centro Industrial do Brasil, Atas, 1904–1923, ACIRJ, p. 1.
84 For example, “A Mentalidade Económica e as Associaçães Comerciais,” Revista de Direito Comercial, 40, vol. 10 (1940), 338; da Costa, João e Sobrinho, Silva Santos Noutros Tempos (São Paulo: Revista dos Tribunals, 1953), p. 251.Google Scholar
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