Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T17:54:05.593Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Peace Came in the Sign of the Cross: Ritualized Diplomacy Among Natives and Spaniards in the Sonora-Arizona Borderlands, 1694–1836

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 June 2022

José Manuel Moreno Vega Open the ORCID record for José Manuel Moreno Vega [Opens in a new window]
José Manuel Moreno Vega*
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina [email protected]
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article analyzes the meanings and uses of crosses in the interactions among diverse indigenous groups and colonizers in the Sonoran frontier of northern New Spain during the eighteenth century and beyond. By showing that colonial expansion was a process that included persuasion within a context of violence, it highlights diplomacy through exchanges facilitated by cultural parallels and hybridity between Christian and precontact Amerindian symbols and rituals. This approach illustrates that the sign of the cross became a widespread mechanism for initiating peaceful interactions. The emphasis on the hybrid use of crosses provides insight into the fluid interactions among Natives and colonizers through the adoption of this symbol and the role these Native groups had in implanting colonial culture in their societies. Ultimately, it shows the indigenous peoples’ reactions and strategies under colonial presence.

Keywords

culturediplomacyreduccióncolonial expansionSonora
Type
Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 79 , Issue 3 , July 2022 , pp. 399 - 424
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Academy of American Franciscan History

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

I extend my sincerest gratitude to these institutions and endowments, which funded the research and writing of this article: Institute for the Study of the Americas, the Americas Research Network, the Clein Family Endowed Fund for Faculty and Graduate Student Support in History, and the Faherty Fund for Research in Military History. I also want to thank the scholars who kindly provided me with their time, knowledge, and support: Cynthia Radding, Brandon Bayne, Kathleen DuVal, Wayne Lee, Juliana Barr, Susan Deeds, Kathryn Burns, Ana Luz Ramírez Zavala, Ignacio Almada Bay, José Marcos Medina Bustos; friends and colleagues Alyssa Skarbek, Angélica Castillo, Nathan Gill, Daniel Velásquez, Achsah Dorsey, Eric Thomas, Anderson Hagler, Justin Blanton, Daniel Morgan, Dalvin Tsay, Till Knobloch, and Laura Cox; the editors Mary Karasch, Matthew DeLaMater, and John F. Schwaller; and The Americas’ anonymous reviewers.

References

1. The opening quotation makes reference to a diplomatic hybrid ritual that the indigenous groups in Sonora practiced to request peace with colonialists. Spaniards might have understood these crosses as Christian symbols, but by planting them to the cardinal directions the Natives included their own tradition. Quotation retrieved from Correspondence between Viceroy Marqués de Croix and Minister of War Juan Gregorio Muniáin, Mexico City, May 25, 1769, based on news excerpt from the Expedition of Sonora, written at the garrison of Pitic on March 21, 1769, Archivo General de Indias [hereafter AGI], México, Vol. 2477.

2. Seed, Patricia, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe's Conquest of the New World 1492–1640 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 131–133Google Scholar, 180–184.

3. Seed, Ceremonies of Possession, 184.

4. Burns, Kathryn, Into the Archive: Writing and Power in Colonial Peru (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2010), 1Google Scholar.

5. Kessell, John, Kiva, Cross, and Crown: The Pecos Indians and New Mexico, 1540–1840 (Tucson: Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, 1987), 13Google Scholar.

6. Bowen, Thomas, Unknown Island: Seri Indians, Europeans, and San Esteban Island in the Gulf of California (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000), 36Google Scholar.

7. Lee, Wayne E., “Warfare and Culture,” in Warfare and Culture in World History, Lee, Wayne E., ed. (New York and London: New York University Press, 2011), 3Google Scholar.

8. See Wood, Stephanie, “Nahua Christian Warriors in the Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco, Cholula Parish,” in Indian Conquistadors: Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica, Matthew, Laura E. and Oudijk, Michel R., eds. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007), 274Google Scholar. For other significant work on the symbolic rituals and negotiations in Mesoamerica, see the other chapters in the same edited volume.

9. Bayne, Brandon, Missions Begin with Blood: Suffering and Salvation in the Borderlands of New Spain (New York: Fordham University Press, 2021), 127–128Google Scholar.

10. Folsom, Raphael, Yaquis and the Empire: Violence, Spanish Imperial Power, and Native Resilience in Colonial Mexico (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2014), 1, 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

11. Radding, Cynthia, Wandering Peoples: Colonialism, Ethnic Spaces, and Ecological Frontiers in Northwestern Mexico, 1700–1850 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1997), 9, 68Google Scholar.

12. Deeds, Susan, Defiance and Deference in Mexico's Colonial North: Indians under Spanish Rule in Nueva Vizcaya (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003), 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13. Bayne, Missions Begin with Blood, 64.

14. Guillermo Wilde, “Frontier Missions in South America: Impositions, Adaptations, and Appropriations,” in Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World, Danna Levin Rojo et al., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 546.

15. On Sonoran Native resistance, see Spicer, Edward, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533–1960 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1981), 16–17Google Scholar; Julio César Montané Martí, El mito conquistado: Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (Hermosillo: Universidad de Sonora, 1999), 454; and Dora Elvia Enríquez Licón, “Indios auxiliares en la Sonora misional: una revaluación,” in Misiones del noroeste de México: origen y destino/2015, Raquel Padilla Ramos, coord. (Hermosillo: Fondo Regional para la Cultura y las Artes del Noroeste, 2017), 111–113. On the challenges for colonial expansion, see Berrojalbiz, Fernando and Hers, Marie-Areti, “Fluctuating Frontiers in the Borderlands of Mesoamerica,” in Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World, Rojo, Danna Levin et al. , eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 84–85, 98Google Scholar; Rojo, Levin, “‘Indian Friends and Allies' in the Spanish Imperial Borderlands of North America,” in Oxford Handbook (2019), 143Google Scholar.

16. For examples of early interactions among Natives and Spaniards, see Maureen Ahern, “The Cross and the Gourd: The Appropriation of Ritual Signs in the Relaciones of Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Fray Marcos de Niza,” in Early Images of the Americas: Transfer and Invention, Jerry M. Williams and Robert E. Lewis, eds. (Tucson and London: University of Arizona Press, 1993), 220–225.

17. Cushner, Nicholas P., Soldiers of God: The Jesuit in Colonial America, 1565–1767 (Buffalo, NY: Language Communications, 2002), 254Google Scholar.

18. José Marcos Medina Bustos and Ignacio Almada Bay, “Inter-ethnic War in Sonora: Indigenous Captains General and Cultural Change, 1740–1832,” in Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World, Danna A. Levin et al., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 183–186.

19. Rolena Adorno and Patrick Charles Pautz, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca: His Account, His Life, and the Expedition of Pánfilo de Narváez, Vol. 1 (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1999), 113–115, 177; Danna A. Levin Rojo and Cynthia Radding, “Introduction: Borderlands, A Working Definition,” in Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World, Danna A. Levin Rojo et al., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019), 9; Kathleen DuVal and John DuVal, “Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca's Shipwreck off the Texas Coast, 1528–1536,” in Interpreting a Continent: Voices from Colonial America, Kathleen DuVal et al., eds. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), 33–34.

20. White, Richard, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), xxviGoogle Scholar.

21. Barr, Juliana, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 39Google Scholar.

22. Radding, Cynthia, Landscapes of Power and Identity: Comparative Histories in the Sonoran Desert and the Forests of Amazonia from Colony to Republic (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2005), 218Google Scholar.

23. Tienda y Cuervo's map does not specify the exact date of its elaboration but it was drawn around the 1750s. Original map retrieved from “Hanc Sonora Tabulam,” Museo Naval de Madrid [hereafter MNM], AMN.008-B-09.

24. Eusebio Francisco Kino, Correspondencia del P. Kino con los Generales de la Compañía de Jesús. 1682–1707. Prólogo y Notas de Ernest J. Burrus, S.J., Testimonia Historica, Num. 5 (Mexico City: Editorial Jus, 1961), 85.

25. Justin Blanton, “Becoming Chiquitano: Crafting Identities in the Broader Paraguayan River Basin” (PhD diss.: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2018), 69; Bayne, Missions Begin with Blood, 8.

26. The Sobaipuris were an O'odham subgroup whose territory extended through today's San Pedro and Santa Cruz River Valleys.

27. Reference is taken from contemporary and colonial maps retrieved from Cynthia Radding, Las estructuras socio-económicas de las misiones de la Pimería Alta 1768–1850 (Hermosillo: INAH Centro Regional del Noroeste, 1979), 6–7; Eusebio Francisco Kino, “Saeta martyrdom” map, 1696–97, in Seimour, Deny, A Fateful Day in 1698: The Remarkable Sobaiupuri-O'odham Victory over the Apaches and Their Allies (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2014), 28Google Scholar; Peso, Charles Di, The Sobaipuri Indians of the Upper San Pedro River Valley, Southeastern Arizona (Dragoon, AZ: Amerind Foundation, 1974), 1Google Scholar; and Sussman, Naomi, “Indigenous Diplomacy and Spanish Mediation in the Lower Colorado-Gila River Region, 1771–1783,” Ethnohistory 66:2 (April 2019): 332CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28. Radding, Cynthia, “Crosses, Caves, and Matachinis: Divergent Appropriations of Catholic Discourse in Northwestern New Spain,” The Americas 55:2 (October 1998): 200CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Radding, Wandering Peoples, 15; Smith, Ryan K., Gothic Arches, Latin Crosses: Anti-Catholicism and American Church Designs in the Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, Press 2006), 62, 66Google Scholar.

29. Lovern, Lavonna L. and Locust, Carol, “Yaqui Beliefs on Wellness,” in Native American Communities on Health and Disability: Borderland Dialogues (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2013), 114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30. Schuetz-Miller, Mardith, “Pre-Euclidian Geometry in the Design of Mission Churches of the Spanish Borderlands,” Journal of the Southwest 48:4 (December 2006): 332–333, 338Google Scholar.

31. Underhill, Ruth, Papago Woman: An Intimate Portrait of American Indian Culture (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 1985), 59Google Scholar.

32. Edward Moser and Richard S. White Jr., “Seri Clay Figurines,” The Kiva 33:3 (1968): 145; Felger, Richard Stephen and Moser, Mary Beck, People of the Desert and Sea: Ethnobotany of the Seri Indians (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985), 103CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 105, 119, 154–159.

33. Griffith, James, A Shared Space: Folklife in the Arizona-Sonora Borderlands (Logan: Utah State University Press, 1995), 99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34. Underhill, Papago Woman, 48, 49, 53, 59, 64.

35. Underhill, Papago Woman, 61, 63; Fontana, Bernard, Of Earth and Little Rain: The Papago Indians (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

36. Underhill, Papago Woman, 70; Fontana, Of Earth and Little Rain.

37. Stockel, Henrietta H., Salvation through Slavery: Chiricahua Apaches and Priests on the Spanish Colonial Frontier (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008), 17Google Scholar.

38. Basso, Keith, The Cibecue Apache (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970)Google Scholar; Opler, Morris, An Apache Life-Way: The Economic, Social and Religious Institutions of the Chiricahua Indians (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 132Google Scholar, 214–215, 258–259, 266, 304, 309.

39. Ethnographic secondary sources do not specify the type of pollen used during cross-cultural rituals.

40. Opler, An Apache Life-Way, 309.

41. Adorno and Pautz, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Vol. 1, 113–115, 177; DuVal and DuVal, “Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca's Shipwreck off the Texas Coast,” 33–34.

42. Levin Rojo and Radding, “Introduction: Borderlands, A Working Definition,” 9.

43. Pijoan, Teresa, White Wolf Woman: Native American Transformation Myths Collected and Retold by Teresa Pijoan (Little Rock: August House Publishers, 1992), 12Google Scholar.

44. Griffith, A Shared Space, 100–101.

45. In Sonora, the first missions were established in 1614 and the first presidio in 1690. See Sergio Ortega Noriega, “El sistema de las misiones jesuíticas: 1591–1699,” in Historia general de Sonora, Tomo II, De la Conquista al Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora, Sergio Ortega Noriega et al., eds. (Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado de Sonora, 1996), 45–46; Sheridan, Thomas, Empire of Sand: The Seri Indians and the Struggle for Spanish Sonora, 1645–1803 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1999), 36Google Scholar; and Martha Ortega Soto, “La colonización española en la primera mitad del siglo XVIII,” in Historia general de Sonora, Tomo II, De la Conquista al Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora (Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado de Sonora, 1996), 162–163.

46. Bayne, Brandon, “Willy-Nilly Baptisms and Chichimeca Freedoms: Missionary Disputes, Indigenous Desires and the 1695 O'odham Revolt,” Journal of Early Modern History 21 (2017): 9–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47. Radding, Wandering Peoples, 10, 22, 26; Zulema Trejo, Raquel Padilla, and Ana Luz Ramírez Zavala, “Introducción,” in Cambio cultural en territorios de frontera: programas, procesos y apropiaciones. Siglos XVII-XXI, Ana Luz Ramírez Zavala et al., coords. (Hermosillo: El Colegio de Sonora, 2020), 17.

48. José Manuel Moreno Vega, “Reciprocidad y generosidad: la carga de sostener la paz con los españoles en la Intendencia de Sonora, 1786–1797,” in Cambio cultural en territorios de frontera: programas, procesos y apropiaciones. Siglos XVII-XXI, Ana Luz Ramírez Zavala et al., coords. (Hermosillo: El Colegio de Sonora, 2020), 38.

49. Radding, Wandering Peoples, 113.

50. Cynthia Radding highlights the “slippery nature of the alliances among mission and non-mission Indians” and points out that the latter could gather “intelligence” from the former. See Radding, Wandering Peoples, 271; and Alida Metcalf, Go-Betweens and the Colonization of Brazil: 1500–1600 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005).

51. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 33; Charles Di Peso and Daniel S. Matson, “The Seri Indians in 1692 as Described by Adamo Gilg, S.J.,” Arizona and the West 7:1 (Spring, 1965): 33–56; Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, 105; Radding, “Crosses, Caves, and Matachinis,” 200; Radding, Landscapes of Power, 214; Bowen, Unknown Island, 58–59; and Bayne, “Willy-Nilly Baptisms.”

52. Mange, Juan Mateo, Diario de las exploraciones en Sonora: luz de tierra incógnita (Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado de Sonora, 1985), 28–29Google Scholar.

53. On the O'odham rebellion of 1695, see Bayne, “Willy-Nilly Baptisms.” On crosses and arches, see Eusebio Francisco Kino, Kino's Historical Memoir of Pimería Alta: A Contemporary Account of the Beginnings of California, Sonora, and Arizona, by Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, S.J., Pioneer Missionary Explorer, Cartographer and Ranchman. 1683–1711. From the Original Manuscript in the Archives of Mexico, Herbert Bolton, ed. and trans. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1948), 166, 172; Eusebio Francisco Kino, Las misiones de Sonora y Arizona: comprendiendo la crónica titulada “Favores celestiales” y “Relación diaria de la entrada al noroeste.” Versión paleográfica e índice por Francisco Fernández del Castillo; con noticias bibliográficas del Padre Kino y sus exploraciones y fundaciones por Dr. Emilio Böse (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1989), 55.

54. Kino, Las misiones de Sonora y Arizona, 408.

55. Schreffler, Michael, “A Triumphal Arch for the Count of Moctezuma: Architectural Poetics and Artistic Competition at the Cathedral of Mexico City, ca. 1670–1700,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 79:4 (2020): 419, 427, 434CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

56. Griffith, James, Beliefs and Holy Places: A Spiritual Geography of the Pimería Alta (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992), 79Google Scholar.

57. Griffith, Beliefs and Holy Places, 75.

58. During his expedition to Sonora in 1539, Franciscan friar Marcos de Niza noticed that the Native groups from that area received him “with much hospitality and rejoicing,” with customary indigenous “arches,” which Niza described as “triumphal.” See Percy M. Baldwin, “Fray Marcos de Niza and His Discovery of the Seven Cities of Cibola,” New Mexico Historical Review 1:2 (April 1, 1926): 202.

59. On crosses as part of gift exchanges, see Bayne, “Willy-Nilly Baptisms,” 36. On Native reciprocal gift-giving practices in general, see Moreno Vega, “Reciprocidad y generosidad,” 31–61.

60. Kino, Las misiones de Sonora y Arizona, 74–75.

61. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 73.

62. Bowen, Unknown Island, 64.

63. Bowen, Unknown Island, 64.

64. Treutlein, Theodore, “The Relation of Philipp Segesser,” Mid-America: An Historical Review 27:3 (July 1945): 154, 155Google Scholar.

65. Excerpt of the latest news from the Sonora Expedition and the instructions given by the General Visitor in Real de Los Alamos, 1769, AGI, México, Vol. 2477, no folder number, no fol. number; Juan de Mendoza, Report to viceroy of New Spain, Marqués de las Amarillas, San Miguel de Horcasitas, February 15, 1757, AGI, México, Vol. 1358, no folder number, fols. 26–26v; Pablo de Arce y Arroyo, Report from the governor and captain general of Sonora and Sinaloa, October 30, 1753, AGI, México, Vol. 1358, no folder number, fol. 182; Radding, Wandering Peoples, 281; Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 354–355; Kino, Historical Memoir, 198; Treutlein, “The Relation of Philipp Segesser,” 153; Blyth, Lance, Chiricahua and Janos: Communities of Violence in the Southwestern Borderlands, 1680–1880 (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2012), 58CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Griffen, William, Apaches at War and Peace: The Janos Presidio 1750–1858 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 169Google Scholar; Barr, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman, 1.

66. Jackson, Robert, Indian Population Decline: The Missions of Northwestern New Spain, 1687–1840 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995), 5, 16Google Scholar.

67. Reff, Daniel, Disease, Depopulation, and Culture Change in Northwestern New Spain, 1518–1764 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1991), 158–160Google Scholar.

68. Folsom, Yaquis and the Empire, 1, 3.

69. José Refugio de la Torre Curiel, “Tierra Incognita: Cartography and Projects of Territorial Expansion in Sonora and Arizona, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” in Oxford Handbook of Borderlands of the Iberian World, Danna A. Levin Rojo et. al., eds. (New York: Oxford, 2019), 475.

70. Radding, Wandering Peoples, 264.

71. Radding, Wandering Peoples, 267, 280–281; De la Torre Curiel, “Tierra Incognita,” 475.

72. Esperanza Donjuan Espinoza, “Violencia interétnica vista a través de derroteros y diarios de exploraciones en la provincia de Sonora, siglo XVIII,” in Violencia interétnica en la frontera norte novohispana y mexicana. Siglos XVII-XIX, José Marcos Medina Bustos et al., coords. (Hermosillo: El Colegio de Sonora, 2015), 98.

73. Treutlein, “The Relation of Philipp Segesser,” 153.

74. Cynthia Radding, “The Colonial Pact and Changing Ethnic Frontiers: Frontiers in Highland Sonora, 1740–1840,” in Contested Ground: Comparative Frontiers on the Northern and Southern Edges of the Spanish Empire, Donna Guy et al., eds. (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998), 52–66; Radding, Wandering Peoples, 3, 97; Weber, David, Bárbaros: Spaniards and Their Savages in the Age of Enlightenment (New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 2005), 5–9Google Scholar; Ramírez Zavala, et al., “Introducción,” in Cambio cultural, 18; Lynch, John, The Spanish American Revolutions 1808–1826 (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1986), 2, 7Google Scholar.

75. García, Luis Navarro, Don José de Gálvez y la Comandancia General de las Provincias Internas del Norte de Nueva España (Seville: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1964), 84–85Google Scholar; Silva, María del Valle Borrero, Fundación y primeros años de la gobernación de Sonora y Sinaloa (Hermosillo: El Colegio de Sonora, 2004)Google Scholar.

76. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, 107.

77. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 163.

78. Juan de Mendoza, Correspondence between the governor of Sonora and the viceroy of New Spain, Marqués de las Amarillas, San Miguel de Horcasitas, March 15, 1756, AGI, México, Vol. 1358, no folder number, fol. 214.

79. Juan de Mendoza, Testimony of the documents made under consultation with the governor of the Province of Sonora and Sinaloa, in which he gives an account of the results of his campaign against the Seri Indians, 1757, AGI, México, Vol. 1358, no folder number, fol. 21.

80. The largest of these was the Expedition of Sonora, under the orders of Colonel Domingo Elizondo. See Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 13–14.

81. Juan de Mendoza, Report from the governor of Sonora y Sinaloa to the viceroy of New Spain, Marqués de las Amarillas, San Miguel de Horcasitas, February 15, 1757, AGI, México, Vol. 1358, no folder number, fol. 12.

82. Juan de Mendoza, Report from the governor of Sonora y Sinaloa to the viceroy of New Spain, Marqués de las Amarillas, San Miguel de Horcasitas, February 15, 1757, AGI, México Vol. 1358, no folder number, fol. 12v.

83. Juan de Mendoza, Testimony of the documents made under consultation with the governor of the Province of Sonora and Sinaloa, in which he gives an account of the results of his campaign against the Seri Indians, 1757, AGI, México, Vol. 1358, no folder number, fols. 22v-23.

84. José Tienda y Cuervo, colonial map titled “Hanc Sonora Tabulam,” 1750s (undated), MNM, AMN.008-B-09.

85. José Tienda y Cuervo, Report on peace negotiations with the Seris and Pimas at Cerro Prieto, San Miguel de Horcasitas, April 14, 1762, AGI, Guadalajara, Vol. 511, folder 7, fol. 59.

86. Tienda y Cuervo, Report on peace negotiations with the Seris and Pimas at Cerro Prieto, fol. 59–59v.

87. Tienda y Cuervo, Report on peace negotiations with the Seris and Pimas at Cerro Prieto, fols. 59–60.

88. Tienda y Cuervo, Report on peace negotiations with the Seris and Pimas at Cerro Prieto, fol. 60.

89. Radding, Wandering Peoples, 171.

90. Tienda y Cuervo, Report on peace negotiations with the Seris and Pimas at Cerro Prieto, fol. 60.

91. Tienda y Cuervo, Report on peace negotiations with the Seris and Pimas at Cerro Prieto, fol. 60v.

92. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 15.

93. “Jesuit Expulsion,” US National Park Service, Mission Tumacacori 2000 Database, https://www.nps.gov/tuma/learn/historyculture/jesuit-expulsion.htm, accessed February 17, 2021.

94. Antonio de los Reyes, News about the Provinces of Sonora and Sinaloa on the Status of their Missions, the Causes of their Ruin, and Means for their Reestablishment, written by Antonio de los Reyes as a Franciscan missionary and addressed to the Viceroy of New Spain, April 20, 1774, AGI, Guadalajara, Vol. 586, folder 4, fol. 19. This document is also microfilmed at the AGI under the serial code C-2025-2026P.

95. De la Torre Curiel, “Tierra Incognita,” 476.

96. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 15.

97. José Antonio de Vildósola, Journals and Military Expedition Routes, addressed to Governor and Capitan General Juan de Pineda, Guaymas, May 13, 1770, AGN, Historia, Vol. 24, fols. 320v-321.

98. Excerpt of the latest news from the Sonora Expedition and the instructions given by the General Visitor in Real de Los Alamos, 1769, AGI, México, Vol. 2477, no folder number, and no fol. number.

99. Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 256.

100. For an English version of the royal regulations, see Brinckerhoff, Sidney B. and Faulk, Odie B., Lancers of the King: A Study of the Frontier Military System of Northern New Spain, with a Translation of the Royal Regulations of 1772 (Phoenix: Arizona Historical Foundation, 1965)Google Scholar.

101. Weber, Bárbaros, 148.

102. Antonio María de Bucareli y Ursúa, Letter from the viceroy of New Spain communicating news from the governors of the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya, Sonora, New Mexico, and Texas, and the actions against Apaches and Comanches and other nations, Mexico City, January 27, 1773, AGI, Guadalajara, Vol. 513, folder 1, letter number 732, fols. 4–4v.; Sheridan, Empire of Sand, 406–408.

103. Ana Luz Ramírez Zavala, “Carrizal, misión franciscana en territorio comcáac,” in Misiones del noroeste de México, Padilla Ramos, 61–74.

104. Bernardo de Gálvez, Viceregal Instruction on Indian Peace Policies for the Internal Provinces of New Spain, Mexico City, August 26, 1786, Biblioteca Nacional de España, R/1237(5), 1–60; Weber, Bárbaros, 193; José Refugio de la Torre Curiel and González, Ana Isabel Pérez, “‘Nada les hemos cumplido’: negociaciones de paz entre apaches y españoles en la Nueva Vizcaya en 1787,” Historia Mexicana 69:3 (2020): 1025–1026, 1028Google Scholar.

105. Babcock, Matthew, Apache Adaptation to Hispanic Rule (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 2, 142–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Moreno Vega, “Reciprocidad y generosidad,” 31–33; Ortega Noriega, “El sistema de las misiones jesuíticas,” 45. Information on original place-name for Bacoachi retrieved from Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley, Microfilm Role Positive BN 416:17, Papeles relativos a los Jesuitas en Baja California y otras regiones septentrionales de la Nueva España 1686–1793, specific document title: Misión de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Arizpe, written by Jesuit missionary Carlos de Rojas, Arizpe, July 28, 1722, 1–3v; and Dora Elvia Enríquez Licón, “Bacoachi, pueblo ópata de frontera: la herencia colonial,” in Cambio cultural en territorios de frontera: programas, procesos y apropiaciones. Siglos XVII-XXI (Hermosillo: El Colegio de Sonora, 2020), 85.

106. Domingo Vergara, Report addressed to Intendant Governor of Sonora Pedro Garrido y Durán about the reasoning made by the captain of the Chiricagüis during their peace ceremony on November 16, 1786, Arizpe, November 30, 1786, AGI, Guadalajara, Vol. 286, folder 1.

107. Basso, Cibecue Apache, 67.

108. Griffen, Apaches at War, 168.