¹ Approximately seventy percent of all missionaries during the nineteenth century were French: Delacroix, S., Histoire universelle des missions catholiques, 6 vols. (Paris: 1956), 4, p. 110 Google Scholar; and Chappoulie, Henri-Alexandre, Clartés sur l’horizon (Paris, 1946), p. 75 Google Scholar. The missionary movement of the nineteenth century must be understood in context of European colonialism. For a critique missions and colonialism, see Merle, Marcel, Les églises chrétiennes et la décolonisation (Paris, 1967)Google Scholar; also de Lavignette, Robert, Christianity and Colonialism (New York, 1964)Google Scholar and Farrell, John T., “Imperialism and the Christian Mission” (MA Diss., Yale Divinity School, 1955).Google Scholar

2 Latourette, Kenneth S., A History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols. (New York, 1943),5,92.Google Scholar

3 Davis, Harold Eugene, Latin American Social Thought: The History of Its Development Since Independence, with Selected Readings (Washington, D.C., 1961)Google Scholar; Bernoville, Gaetan, “La cultura latina y Francia,” Criterio, (3 enero 1929), 18–20 Google Scholar; Franco, Jean, The Modem Culture of Latin American Society and the Artist (New York, 1967), pp. 5,11,15,17–18,134–135Google Scholar; Dozer, Donald Marquand, Latin America: An Interpretive History (New York, 1962), pp. 90–91, 212–235.Google Scholar

4 Pomerleau, Claude, “The Missionary Dimension of the Latin American Church: A Study of French Clergy from 1963–1971” (Ph.D. Diss., University of Denver, 1975).Google Scholar

5 The role of foreign influence on Church organization is analyzed in Mutchler, David, The Church as a Political Factor in Latin America: With Particular Reference to Colombia and Chile (New York, 1971)Google Scholar. Concerning the vocational problems and the missionary role, see Pironio, Bishop, “Must We Continue to Send Priests to Latin America,” CEFAL (Bogota, 1969)Google Scholar; Antonine Tibesar, O.F.M., “The Shortage of Priests in Latin America: A Historical Evaluation of Werner Promper’s Priesternot in Lateinamerika ,” The Americas, 23 (1966), 413–420 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; de Certeau, Michel, “Problemas actuales del sacerdocio en America Latina,” Mensaje, 177 (1969), 16–19 Google Scholar; Regan, David, “Shortage of Priests Seen from Brazil,” Doctrine and Life, 21 (Oct. 1971), 520–529.Google Scholar

6 Daniel Olmedo, S.J., Historia de la iglesia católica (México, 1978), pp. 433–436 Google Scholar; Also, Lloyd Mecham, J., Church and State in Latin America (Chapel Hill: 1966), p. 19.Google Scholar

7 For a different approach to a similar problem, see Williams, Edward J., “The Emergence of the Secular Nation-State and Latin American Catholicism,” Comparative Politics (Jan. 1972), 262–266.Google Scholar

8 For a complementary analysis of Church and religious ritual in Latin America, see Vallier, Ivan, Catholicism, Social Control and Modernization in Latin America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1970), p. 27.Google Scholar

9 For a detailed analysis of French missionary activities during most of the nineteenth century, see Jean-Baptiste Piolet, Les missions catholiques françaises au XIXé siècle.

10 Arens, Bernard, Manuel de missions catholiques (Louvain, 1925), p. 434.Google Scholar

11 For example, the White Fathers and the Congregation of the Holy Ghost were oriented toward Africa and Asia respectively. The African Missions of Lyons (1856) and Association for the Propagation of the Faith (1804) coordinated missionary activities and trained foreign clergy. See Millot, René-Pierre, Missions in the World Today (New York, 1961), pp. 32–39.Google Scholar

12 For information on the missionary press, see Missi (April 1972). This is one of the important missionary publications of France. Founded in 1935, its editorial board consists of nineteen French missionary societies and institutes.

13 Some representative publications in this area of scholarship are: Goyau, Georges, La France missionnaire dans les cinq partis du monde, 2 vols. (Paris, 1948)Google Scholar; Descamps, Baron, Histoire general comparée des missions (Paris, 1932)Google Scholar; Louvet, Bernard, Histoire universelle des missions catholiques au XIX^E siècle (Paris, 1897)Google Scholar; Launay, Adrien, Histoire général de la société des missions étrangères, 2 yols. (Paris, 1894)Google Scholar; Lesoudre, Paul, Histoire des missions catholiques (Paris, 1937).Google Scholar

14 Gooch, G.P., French Profiles (London, 1961).Google Scholar

15 One example of a man of religion and science is the Rev. Delâttre, missionary and archeologist, who spent his life in Africa pursuing scientific research and remained faithful to his religious ministry. See Descamps, , Histoire général, p. 595.Google Scholar

16 One example of a religious society which assumed a strong missionary orientation in its earliest days is the Congregation of Holy Cross, founded in 1839. See Barosse, Thomas, Moreau, Portrait of a Founder (Notre Dame, 1969).Google Scholar

17 It is useful to cite the career of Cardinal Lavigerie, founder of the White Fathers, specializing in Africa and a leader of the nineteenth century campaign to abolish slavery. He came from a religious family in the Bayonne area and was oriented toward public service from his earliest youth. A more dramatic example of a missionary career can be seen in the case of the Rev. Pâcome Olivier, a member of the Picpus Fathers, who went to Chile. In 1865, the Spanish fleet blockaded Valparaiso with resulting heavy damages. He single handedly restored order and enabled the city to overcome the blockade. He was publicly honored by the Chilean and French authorities. See Piolet, , Les missions catholiques, p. 470.Google Scholar

18 Brunschwig, Henri, Myths et rèalities de l’impèrialisme colonial français, 1871–1914 (Paris, 1960) pp. 111–112.Google Scholar

19 “In Cochin China, as in Senegal or in Algeria, as everywhere we find ourselves in the presence of primitive or corrupt societies, our most useful auxiliaries will be missionaries and schoolmasters. What force can resist the two levers of religion and science? Let us know how to use them and we shall have accomplished a useful and patriotic work.” Gaffarel, Paul, Les colonies françaises (Paris, 1880), p. 332.Google Scholar

20 American political scientist Paul Reinsch reacted with exasperation at missionary abuses during the end of the nineteenth century: “Never before, perhaps, has so much material value been attached to the ministers of the Gospel,” in World Politics at the End of the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1900), p. 146.

21 de Lavignette, Robert, Christianity and Colonialism (New York, 1964), pp. 64–65.Google Scholar

22 An extensive catalogue of French missionary foundations can be found in Piolet, Les missions catholiques, V.

23 Mecham, , Church and Stateq, p. 143.Google Scholar

24 Although Haiti was somewhat isolated from the rest of Latin America, it has long been the focus of French missionary activity. As a colony of France, it was the first Latin American country to gain independence (1804) under Toussaint-Louverture. All missionaries were expelled, and not allowed to return until the concordat with Rome in 1860. Many French missionaries returned to the island because of the language and traditions. Once returned, they worked to create a climate of opinion favorable to a “voluntary association” with France. See Courlander, Harold and Bastien, Rémy, Religion and Politics in Haiti (D.C., 1966), p. 45 Google Scholar. By 1900 the Holy Ghost Fathers had established a seminary in Port-au-Prince, the French Christian Brothers had established twenty-five schools for boys, the Sisters of Wisdom had built four hospitals and staffed fourteen schools for girls. In addition, the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny had established innumerable service centers and training institutes among Haitians.

25 For two contrasting views of the cultural obligations of French Catholicism, see Chappoulie, Henri Aléxandre, La vocation missionnaire et civilisatrice de la France (Paris, 1940)Google Scholar; and Folliet, Joseph, Le droit de colonisation: Etude de morale social et internationale (Paris, 1933).Google Scholar

26 Consult the accounts on the “déchristianisation de Paris” in “Semaine Religieuse” (Paris Diocesan Publication, 1910). A pioneer parish priest at the turn of the century anticipated many of the present religious reforms: Poulat, Emile, ed., Le journald’un prêtre d’après-demain (Paris, 1961)Google Scholar. For other accounts of social and political reformers within French Catholicism see Sterns, Peter N., Priest and Revolutionary: Lemennais and the Dilemma of French Catholicism (New York, 1967)Google Scholar and Maier, Hans, Revolution and Church (Notre Dame, 1969).Google Scholar

27 See La France, pays de mission? a controversial classic written by two clerics, Godin, Henri and Daniel, Yves (Paris, 1943).Google Scholar

28 Goyau, Georges, Histoire general compares des missions, 4 vols. (Paris, 1948), II, 214.Google Scholar

29 De Lavignette, , Christianity and Colonialism, p. 65.Google Scholar

30 Quoted in Retif, Andrè, Un nouvel avenir pour les missions (Paris, 1966), p. 10 Google Scholar, from Lettre à un religieux.

31 For a favorable judgment of French missionary endeavors in the nineteenth century, see Latourette, Kenneth, Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, 5 vols. (New York, 1961), IV, p. 129.Google Scholar

32 The encyclical of Leo XIII, In Plurimis (1888), which condemned slavery was taken textually from a letter sent by Cardinal Lavigerie to the Pope. See de Arteche, José, The Cardinal of Africa (London, 1964), p. 159 Google Scholar. The encyclical of Benedict XV, Maximum Illud(1919) was the first official document to establish rules and guidelines for missionaries. The encyclical was based on a letter from the noted French missionary Lebber to Bishop Reynaud in 1871. Merle, , Les églises chrétiennes, p. 81,.Google Scholar

33 Jacques Maritain’s most influential book in Latin America was True Humanism (New York, 1938). See also: Lima, Alceu Amoroso, “The influence of Maritain in Latin America,” The New Scholasticism, 46 (Winter 1972), 70–85.Google Scholar

34 Ussher, Santiago M., “Cien años de acción católica en la Argentina,” Criterio (24 diciembre 1956), 854–860 Google Scholar; Larraín, Emmanuel Cardinal, La hora de la Acción Católica (Santiago, 1956).Google Scholar