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Counting Chinese People in a Catholic Country: Religious Difference, Racial Discrimination, and the 1930 Mexican Population Census

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 October 2019

Kif Augustine-Adams
Kif Augustine-Adams*
Affiliation:
Brigham Young University, Provo, [email protected]
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Extract

On May 15, 1930, in the small border town of Naco, Sonora, census enumerator Miguel Robles started to count. When he finished walking his assigned portions of Calle Hidalgo, Avenida Independencia, and Calle Morelos, he had enumerated 143 individuals, each of whom answered the single question regarding religious identity the same way: Catholic. A block over, a carpenter named Ignacio Ledgard left his tools for the day to canvas his own neighborhood, counting 252 individuals, including his own family. They also all identified as Catholic, except for two Chinese men with no religion.

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Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 76 , Issue 4 , October 2019 , pp. 607 - 640
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 2019 

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Footnotes

The author thanks the following for their support of this project: the anonymous reviewers of the article, Brigham Young University Law School for research funding, and the colleagues and friends who read drafts or offered feedback, especially participants in the 2013 legal history workshop “New Worlds of Faith: Religion and Law in Historical Perspective, 1500–2000.”

References

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2. Secretaría de la Economía Nacional, Dirección General de Estadística, Quinto censo de población, 15 de mayo de 1930: Resumen General (Mexico City: Departamento de la Estadística, 1933) 3, 150.

3. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Cananea, Naco, images 27-29. Jose Antonio Quijada himself is at 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Cananea, Naco, image 25, line 17.

4. Rénique, Gerardo, “Race, Region, and Nation: Sonora's Anti-Chinese Racism and Mexico's Postrevolutionary Nationalism, 1920s-1930s,” in Race & Nation in Modern Latin America, Appelbaum, Nancy P., Macpherson, Anne S., and Rosemblatt, Karin Alejandra, eds. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 211–236Google Scholar, esp. 211, 221 (arguing that racialized anxiety “found forceful expression in the gendered, sexist, and class-biased understandings of anti-Chinese discourse”); Réñique, Gerardo, “Región, raza y nación en el antichinismo sonorense. Cultura regional y mestizaje en el México posrevolucionario,” in Seis expulsiones y un adiós, despojos y exclusiones en Sonora, Bustamante, Aarón Grageda, coord. (Mexico City: Plaza y Valdez, 2003), 231–290Google Scholar. See also the pioneering work of Evelyn Hu-deHart including Hu-deHart, , “Immigrants to a Developing Society: The Chinese in Northern Mexico, 1875–1932,” Journal of Arizona History 21:3 (1980): 275-312Google Scholar; Hu-deHart, , “Coolies, Shopkeepers, Pioneers: The Chinese of Mexico and Peru (1849–1930),” Amerasia 15:2 (1989): 91–116CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hu-deHart, , “Racism and Anti-Chinese Persecution in Sonora, Mexico, 1876–1932,” Amerasia 9:2 (1982): 1–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hu-deHart, , “The Chinese of Baja California Norte, 1910–1934,” in Baja California and the North Mexican Frontier, Proceedings of the Pacific Coast Council on Latin American Studies, vol. 12 (1985-86)Google Scholar; Hu-deHart, , “Los chinos del norte de México, 1875–1930. La formación de una pequeña burguesia regional,” in China en las Californias (Tijuana: Centro Cultural Tijuana, 2002)Google Scholar; Hu-deHart, , “Voluntary Associations in a Predominantly Male Immigrant Community: The Chinese of the Mexican Northern Frontier, 1880–1930,” in Voluntary Associations in the Chinese Diaspora, Kuah-Pearce, Khun Eng and Hu-deHart, Evelyn, eds. (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2006)Google Scholar; and Hu-deHart, , “Chinatowns and Borderlands: Inter-Asian Encounters in the Diaspora,” Modern Asian Studies 46:2 (2012): 425–452CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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8. Réñique, “Región, raza y nación,” 231–289.

9. See for example Bantjes, Adrian, “The Regional Dynamics of and Defanaticization in Revolutionary Mexico,” in Faith and Impiety in Revolutionary Mexico, Butler, Matthew, ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2007), 111–130CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bantjes, Adrian, “Burning Saints, Molding Minds: Iconoclasm, Civic Ritual, and the Failed Cultural Revolution,” in Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance: Public Celebrations and Popular Culture in Mexico, Beezley, William H., Martin, Cheryl English, and French, William E., eds. (Wilmington: SR Books, 1994)Google Scholar; and Meyers, Jean, The Cristero Rebellion: The Mexican People Between Church and State, 1926–1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

10. Peñafiel, Antonio, “La estadística en la República Mexicana,” Boletín de la Sociedad de Geografía de la República Mexicana 4 (1897): 512–517Google Scholar, esp. 514.

11. Peñafiel, “La estadística,” 514–517.

12. Foucault, Michel, “Governmentality,” in The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality, Burchell, Graham, Gordon, Colin, and Miller, Peter, eds., (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 87–104Google Scholar.

13. Peñafiel, Antonio, Trabajos preliminares para la organización de la Estadística General (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1883)Google Scholar.

14. Peñafiel, “La estadística,” 517.

15. Constitution, Mexico, arts. 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 (1917).

16. Ley reformando el Código Penal para el Distrito y Territorios Federales sobre delitos del fuero común y delitos contra la Federación en materia de culto religioso y disciplina externa, Diario Oficial de la Federación, July 2, 1926, http://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_to_imagen_fs.php?codnota=4490016&fecha=2/07/1926&cod_diario=190707, accessed August 6, 2019.

17. Camín, Héctor Aguilar and Meyer, Lorenzo, In the Shadow of the Mexican Revolution: Contemporary Mexican History, 1910–1989 (Austin: University of Texas, 1993), 86Google Scholar. See also Meyers, The Cristero Rebellion.

18. Bantjes, “Regional Dynamics,” 111–130.

19. Bantjes, Adrian, “Mexican Revolutionary Anticlericalism: Concepts and Typologies,” The Americas 65:4 (April 2009): 467–480CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20. Blancarte, Roberto, “Closing Comments. Personal Enemies of God: Anticlericals and Anticlericalism in Revolutionary Mexico, 1915–1940,” The Americas 65:4 (April 2009): 589–599CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21. Zúñiga, Cristina Gutiérrez and de la Torre Castellanos, Renée, “Census Data is Never Enough: How to Make Visible the Religious Diversity in Mexico,” Social Compass 64:2 (2017): 247–261CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Peñafiel, Antonio, Trabajos preliminares para la organización de la Estadística General (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1883)Google Scholar.

22. Peñafiel, Trabajos preliminares, 49–50.

23. See the 1895 census boleta, https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/1895/doc/1895_c.pdf, accessed August 6, 2019. Mexico's National Institute of Statistics and Geography (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía or INEGI) reports that it holds no extant documents describing the process behind the conceptual design of the 1895 census, but suggests that “censuses from other countries, principally those in France and the United States” inspired the design, inspiration of course “adapted to the needs of Mexico itself.” Censo General de la República Mexicana 1895, https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/ccpv/1895/, accessed August 6, 2019. However, neither the United States nor France seems a likely source for the initial decision in 1895 to include a census question regarding individual religious identity. The United States had not then nor has it ever asked about religion on the national census. See Pew Research Center, “A Brief History of Religion and the US Census,” January 26, 2010, http://www.pewforum.org/2010/01/26/a-brief-history-of-religion-and-the-u-s-census/, accessed August 6, 2019. France had not asked about religious identity since 1872, when the Third Republic outlawed the collection of private information, including religion, in its census. See Dargent, Claude and Dutreuilh, Catriona, “Official Statistics on Religion: Protestant Under-Reporting in Nineteenth-Century French Censuses,” Population (English Edition) 64:1 (2009): 203–219CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 203-204; Blum, Alain, “Resistance to Identity Categorization in France,” in Census and Identity: The Politics of Race, Ethnicity, and Language in National Censuses, Kertzer, David I. and Arel, Dominique, eds. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 121–147Google Scholar, esp. 128; and House, Steve C., “Anti-Protestant Rhetoric in the Early Third Republic,” French Historical Studies 16:1 (Spring 1989): 183–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 196.

24. Laura Cházaro, “Antonio Peñafiel Berruecos (1839–1922) y la gestión estadística de los datos nacionales,” Estadística y Sociedad, México 4 (April 2016): 131–152, http://seer.ufrgs.br/index.php/estatisticaesociedade/article/view/64434/37299, accessed August 6, 2019.

25. Peñafiel, Trabajos preliminares, 48–49. See also Samuel Brown, “Report on the Eighth International Statistical Congress, Held at St. Petersburg, 22nd August–29th August, 1872,” Journal of the Statistical Society of London 35:4 (December. 1872): 431–457, esp. 445; and Thorvaldsen, Gunnar, “Religion in the Census,” Social Science History 38:1-2 (Spring/Summer 2014), 203–220CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

26. For the 1921 census boleta, see https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/1921/doc/1921_c.pdf, accessed August 6, 2019. For the 1930 census boleta, see https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/1930/doc/1930_c.pdf, accessed August 6, 2019.

27. For an analysis of questions regarding race in the 1930 Mexican national census, see Augustine-Adams, Kif, “Making Mexico: Mexican Nationality, Chinese Race, and the 1930 Population Census,” Law & History Review 27:1 (Spring 2009), 113–144CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28. See for example Yong Chen, On the Rhetoric of Defining Confucianism as “a Religion”: A Hermeneutic Reading of the Controversy on Confucian Religiosity and Its Significance to Understanding of Chinese Tradition and Modernity (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2005).

29. Bell, Catherine, “Paradigms Behind (And Before) The Modern Concept of Religion,” History and Theory 45 (December 2006) 27–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar: 28, 29.

30. Secretaría de la Economía Nacional, Dirección de los Censos, Instrucciones para empadronadores, jefes de manzana, de sección, de cuartel y de agencias censales (Mexico City: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, 1930), 24; Secretaría de la Economía Nacional, Dirección de los Censos, Instrucciones generales para la ejecución de los censos de población y agrícola ganadero, 15 de mayo de 1930 (Mexico City: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, 1930), 25. Both pamphlets are archived at Centro de Información, Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática, Ciudad de México (Balderas), leg. 2046. Both pamphlets instruct the enumerator with the same language: “Religión – Se escribe en la columna 33 el nombre de la religión que el empadronado declara como suya. Si se trata de niños, se anotará la que indiquen sus padres o la persona de quien depende.”

31. 1895 Mexico Population census form, https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/1895/doc/1895_c.pdf; 1900 Mexico Population census form, https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/programas/ccpv/1900/doc/1900_c.pdf. The INEGI has not posted the 1910 census boleta on its website but describes it as generally the same as the two previous census forms. See Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Características del censo, https://www.inegi.org.mx/programas/ccpv/1910/default.html. All links accessed August 6, 2019.

32. For Sonora, see Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento, Dirección de Estadística [hereafter SAF/DE], División Territorial Estados Unidos Mexicanos correspondiente Censo de 1910, Estado de Sonora (Mexico City: Oficina Impresora de la Secretaria de Hacienda, 1918) 8, http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/integracion/pais/divi_terri/702825001778.pdf. For Tabasco, see SAF/DE, División Territorial …Censo de 1910, Estado de Tabasco (Mexico City: Oficina Impresora de la Secretaria de Hacienda, 1918) 8, http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/integracion/pais/divi_terri/702825001779.pdf. Both accessed August 6, 2019.

33. For Nuevo León, see SAF/DE, División Territorial … Censo de 1910, Estado de Nuevo León (Mexico City, Oficina Impresora de la Secretaria de Hacienda, 1918) 8, http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/integracion/pais/divi_terri/702825001771.pdf. For Chiapas, see SAF/DE, División Territorial … Censo de 1910, Estado de Chiapas (Mexico City: Oficina Impresora de la Secretaria de Hacienda, 1913) 8, http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/Productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/integracion/pais/divi_terri/702825001758.pdf. Both accessed August 6, 2019.

34. Gutiérrez Zúñiga and de la Torre Castellanos, “Census Data is Never Enough,” 247–261. See also Renée de la Torre Castellanos and Cristina Gutiérrez Zúñiga, “La religión en el censo: recurso para la construcción de una cultura de pluralidad religiosa en México,” Revista Cultura y Religión 8:2 (July-December. 2014): 166–196.

35. See for example Cornille, Catherine, “Introduction: The Dynamics of Multiple Belonging,” in Many Mansions? Multiple Religious Belonging and Christian Identity, Cornille, Catherine, ed. (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2002), 1–6Google Scholar; Phan, Peter C., Being Religious Interreligiously: Asian Perspectives on Interfaith Dialogue (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2004), 62Google Scholar (noting that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam “consider themselves not only mutually incompatible but also irreconcilable with any other religion whatsoever, so that ‘conversion’ to any of them is often celebrated with an external ritual signaling a total abjuration of all previous religious allegiances. Not so with most other religions, particularly in Asia. In Asian countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, multiple religious belonging is the rule rather than the exception, at least on the popular level.”); Kitagawa, Joseph M., “Buddhism and Asian Politics,” Asian Survey 2:5 (July 1962): 1–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar (noting that “One of the significant characteristics of this culturally oriented phase of Buddhism [from the tenth to the nineteenth century] is that it rarely demanded an ‘either/or decision’ from peoples of non-Buddhist background. When Buddhism entered a new area, it usually presented itself more as a ‘supplement’ than as a ‘contestant’ to existing religions and cultures.”).

36. John B. Cobb, Jr., “Multiple Religious Belonging and Reconciliation,” in Many Mansions, Cornille, ed., 20–28, 20.

37. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Naco, Naco, image 41, lines 32–37.

38. See for example Tien, Hung-Mao and Liu, Bocheng, Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972)Google Scholar.

39. Chang, Chino, 136–146.

40. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Hermosillo, Hermosillo, image 239, line 72.

41. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Cajeme, Cocorit, image 10, line 59.

42. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Guaymas, Guaymas, image 166, lines 1, 7–11, 14–22.

43. See Masonic Information Center, “Statement on Freemasonry and Religion,” September 1998, http://www.msana.com/religion.asp, accessed August 6, 2019.

44. Juan L. Paliza to Tomás Wang and Guadalupe Chin, published on October 31, 1924, in the newspaper El Correo de la Tarde (Mazatlán, Sinaloa), in José Ángel Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora (Mexico City: n.p., 1932), 319.

45. José María Tapia and Marino Soni to the director of El Universal, June 1, 1931, reprinted in Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 322.

46. To create the database for the Chinese population in Sonora from which Tables 1, 2, and 3 derive, my research assistants and I reviewed all the individual census forms from the 1930 Mexican census for the state of Sonora. The individual census forms are available online for free through FamilySearch.org and by fee-for-service through Ancestry.com. One person transcribed the information for households that listed at least one person as born in China, of Chinese nationality, or former Chinese nationality; another person reviewed entries. Likewise, we spot-checked individuals and families against the entries in FamilySearch.org. The data analysis conducted for this project involved only those individuals listed as born in China, of Chinese nationality, or formerly of Chinese nationality, rather than the households in which they lived.

47. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Bacoachi, Mututicachi, image 2, lines 68–77.

48. Secretaria de la Economía Nacional, Dirección General de Estadística, Quinto censo de población, 15 de mayo de 1930, Estado de Sonora, (Mexico City: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, 1934); Cuadro VII, Población Clasificada por Sexos, Censos de 1900, 1910, 1921, 1930, 16; Cuadro VIII, Población de los Municipios Clasificada por Sexos, 17; Cuadro IX, Población de los Municipios Clasificada por Sexos, 18–79; Cuadro XVII, Alfabetismo de la Población de Diez Años o Más, 87–102.

49. Quinto censo … Sonora, Cuadro XXXVII, Población Clasificada según el Credo Religioso, 123.

50. Quinto censo … Sonora, Cuadro XXXVII, Población Clasificada según el Credo Religioso, 123; Cuadro XIX, Población Nacional y Extranjera, Clasificada por Ocupaciones y Sexo, 105; Cuadro XXXI, Jefes de Familia Nacionales y Extranjeros Que Poseen Bienes Raíces, 117. See for example Secretaría de la Cultura, Diario de los debates del Congreso Constitutyente, 1916–1917, t. III (Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México, 2016), 51–68, 147–175. These debates centered on the meaning of Article 30(1) of the 1917 Constitution, regarding citizenship by birth or by naturalization.

51. Secretaria de la Economía Nacional, Dirección General de Estadística, Relación de los ejemplos para empadronar los habitantes de un poblado urbano, contenidos en la boleta I, (Mexico City: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, 1930), archived at Centro de Información, Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática, Ciudad de México (Balderas), leg. 2046.

52. Relación de los ejemplos, lines 2–8, 14, 15, 18.

53. Relación de los ejemplos, lines 1, 9–10, 11–13, 17, 19, 24.

54. 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Nogales, Nogales, image 203, line 6 (Arsenio Espinosa); line 14 (Joaquín Silva). 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Cananea, Naco, image 29, line 16 (Gelasio Joel Cejudo y Carbajal); image 36, line 8 (Pedro Soto); image 42, line 65 (Octavio Duplat); image 51, line 26 (Francisco Cuevas). 1930 Census, Ancestry.com, Sonora, Hermosillo, Hermosillo, image 29, line 9 (Gontran Noble); image 43, line 21 (Casimiro Benard).

55. Sonora, Ley número 31, December 13, 1923; Sonora, Secretario de Gobierno, Circular número 278, October 7, 1930, reprinted in Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 55.

56. To identify persons registered as Chinese nationals living in Sonora after the 1931–32 expulsion, I searched in the online database for the Archivo General de la Nación, http://www.agn.gob.mx/guiageneral/, accessed August 6, 2019. Entries in the Register of Foreigners (Registro de Extranjeros) for individual Chinese nationals are found at the following sublevels within the database: Instituciones Gubernamentales: época moderna y contemporánea/ Administración Pública Federal S. XX/ Secretaría de Gobernación Siglo XX/ Departamento de Migración. / Departamento de Migración. (201) / Chinos. The data for the 1940 census is found in Secretaría de la Economía Nacional, Dirección General de Estadística, Sexto censo de población, 1940: Sonora (Mexico City: Departamento de la Estadística, 1943) Población por Nacionalidad y Sexo and Población Extranjera que Adquirió Nacionalidad Mexicana, por Sexo, 21–22. The data for the 1930 Census is found in Quinto censo… Sonora, Cuadro XXII, Población Clasificada por Nacionalidad y Sexo, 108.

57. See for example Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 50–51 (describing Governor Francisco Elías's efforts to enforce Article 106 of the federal Law of Work and Social Foresight of March 31, 1919, and Sonoran state Laws 29 and 30); Circular Número 153, Sección de Gobernación, Hermosillo, Sonora, May 27, 1930, reprinted in Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 52–53 (ordering municipal presidents to strictly enforce a recently enacted sanitary code); and Gobierno del Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora, Dirección General de Salubridad Pública, Aviso a los Comerciantes, October 29, 1930, reprinted in Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 64–65 (limiting the products that could be sold in a single store).

58. Réñique, “Región, raza y nación,” 231–289. The allegations regarding Governor Rodolfo Calles's orders are set forth in various letters from US officials. See for example Lewis V. Boyle, American Consul, to the Secretary of State, Washington, DC, February 25, 1932, US National Archives, RG 59, M1370, 812.504/1273.

59. Quinto censo… Sonora, Cuadro XXXVII, Población Clasificada según el Credo Religioso, 123.

60. “A la Prensa Asociada de los Estados,” El Intruso, April 12, 1924, 1; “A la Prensa Asociada de los Estados,” El Intruso, July 16, 1931, 1. There is a gap from July 17, 1931, to July 1, 1933, in the issues of El Intruso available online through Cervantesvirtual.com. By July 1, 1933, the box no longer appeared on the front or any other page of El Intruso.

61. “A la Prensa Asociada de los Estados,” El Intruso, April 12, 1924, 1.

62. See for example, “Mueren tres hijos de Confucio misteriosamente,” El Intruso, December 13, 1925, 1; “La ley empieza a dominar en Mexicali, B.C.: los fumaderos de opio y casas de juego cerradas por orden del Gobernador Lugo,” El Tucsonense, March 8, 1922, 1 (describing Juan Chong as “a very rich Chinese man” and Charles Ming as “another wealthy son of Confucius”).

63. “La amarga realidad,” El Intruso, July 27, 1924, 2. See also “Un editorial de ‘el Fronterizo,’” El Intruso, April 17, 1924, 2 (referring to a “tailor, son of Confucius”).

64. “Un banquero chino se divierte,” El Intruso, July 17, 1924, 4.

65. “Discurso pronunciado en idioma ‘Confuso,’” El Intruso, November 25, 1925, 1.

66. “Quieren afuerza que los queiran,” El Intruso, December 15, 1925, 1.

67. “¡Atiza!” El Intruso, December 30, 1923, 3.

68. “Catecismo,” El Intruso, January 26, 1924, 2.

69. “Catecismo,” El Intruso, January 26, 1924, 2.

70. Zaratiel, “De mi libro en preparación. ‘Oro y Dolor,’” El Intruso, April 16, 1924, 2–3. Zaratiel offered fragments of his book draft “Gold and Pain” (Oro y Dolor). While there are some similarities between Zaratiel's book fragments and sections of José Ángel Espinoza's book El ejemplo de Sonora, it seems likely that they are two different people. Espinoza's virulent and very public anti-Chinese behavior would make the use of a pseudonym to cloak his identity uncharacteristic.

71. J. M. Abril, “El problema chino,” El Intruso, April 16, 1924, 4.

72. P. C. González, “Al pueblo le toca obrar,” El Intruso, May 16, 1924, 2.

73. ‘Un Observador,’ “Los Judas de la patria: colaboración esp. para ‘El Intruso,’” El Intruso, May 29, 1925, 3–4.

74. “Los chinos y sus cómplices,” El Intruso, December 5, 1925, 2–3.

75. E. S. Romero, “Al pueblo de Sonora y a la República en general,” El Intruso, April 20, 1924, 2–3.

76. “Comentarios,” El Intruso, April 23, 1924, 2.

77. “Notas Diversas,” El Intruso, December 17, 1924, 3.

78. Grace Peña Delgado described José Ángel Espinoza as one of the three “most famous people in Sonora” in the mid 1920s, due to his notorious leadership in the anti-Chinese campaigns. Peña Delgado, Making the Chinese Mexican, 158, 169. Julia Maria Schiavone Camacho deemed Espinoza a “key Sonoran anti-Chinese public intellectual,” noting his election as a state congressional representative. Schiavone Camacho, Chinese Mexicans, 51.

79. Bulnes, Francisco, Sobre el hemisferio norte once mil leguas: impresiones de viaje a Cuba, Los Estados Unidos, El Japón, China, Cochinchina, Egypto y Europa, (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, [1875] 2012)Google Scholar; Carrillo, Enrique Gómez, De Marsella a Tokio, sensaciones de Egipto, la India, la China y el Japón, (Paris: Casa Editorial Garnier Hermanos, 1906) 81–90Google Scholar (relating the Mahavansa), and 73, 83, 86, 87, 88, 90, 93, 164, 186, 221 (referencing Buddha or Buddhism), https://archive.org/details/demarsellatoki00gmuoft, accessed August 6, 2019; Romero, Miguel Alonzo, Caricatura de un recorrido por la India (Caracas: Editorial Elite, 1937) 233Google Scholar.

80. See for example Katz, Paul R., “Orthopraxy and Heteropraxy Beyond the State: Standardizing Ritual in Chinese Society,” Modern China 33:1 (2007): 72–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 79–80.

81. See for example Hu, Shaohua, “Revisiting Chinese Pacifism,” Asian Affairs: An American Review 32:4 (2006): 256–278CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 259-260. For a roughly contemporary example of nonviolence in Chinese Buddhism, see Hamilton, Charles H., “Buddhism Resurgent,” Journal of Religion 17:1 (January 1937): 30-36CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 31-32.

82. My thanks to Christopher Waldrep for suggesting this idea.

83. Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 84, 85. In Nahum 1:2, Jehovah's wrath can hardly be contained for he “is jealous, and … revengeth, and is furious.” In Ezekiel 25:17, God acts directly and violently “And I will execute great vengeance upon them with furious rebukes; and they shall know that I am the Lord, when I shall lay my vengeance upon them.”

84. Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 204–205.

85. Watson, James L., “Standardizing the Gods: The Promotion of T'ien Hou (“Empress of Heaven”) Along the South China Coast, 960–1960,” in Popular Culture in Late Imperial China, Johnson, David, Nathan, Andrew, and Rawski, Evelyn, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985) 292–324Google Scholar, esp. 298.

86. Watson, “Standardizing the Gods,” 298.

87. Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 204–205. Espinoza implies, but does not explicitly say, that the gods preferred the shedding of human blood as a sacrifice.

88. See for example Wilson, Thomas A., “Sacrifice and the Imperial Cult of Confucius,” History of Religions 41:3 (2002): 251–287CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89. Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 195.

90. 1930 Census, Sonora, Agua Prieta, Agua Prieta, image 16, lines 10-16 (Chin family) and image 49, lines 67–72 (Chon family).

91. Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 30.

92. Espinoza, El ejemplo de Sonora, 111.