1. Mafalda 03-232, https://stryptor.herokuapp.com/mafalda/03-232, accessed March 27, 2019. Isabella Cosse has provided a wonderfully insightful analysis of what Mafalda can tell us about the history of middle-class society and politics in Argentina and beyond. See for example “Mafalda: Middle Class, Everyday Life, and Politics in Argentina, 1964–1973,” Hispanic American Historical Review 94:1 (February 2014): 35–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2. Bloch, Marc, The Historian's Craft, Putnam, Peter, trans. (New York: Vintage, 1953), 3Google Scholar.

3. Bloch, Craft, 143, 10, for quotes.

4. For the irony that Ranke as consumed by historians in the US context flattened Ranke in the German context, set within a larger account of US historians’ debates on objectivity and relativism, see Novick, Peter, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), esp. 26–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 86–87, 98–100, 139–141, 262–263. For useful commentary and debate, see “AHR Forum: Peter Novick's That Noble Dream and the Future of the Historical Profession,” American Historical Review 96 (June 1991): 675–708Google Scholar. The risk of such debates is a lens largely restricted to the Global North. For distinctive dynamics of historiography as seen from Latin America, including a tendency to consider paradigms and theory more explicitly, see Cooper, Frederick et al. , Confronting Historical Paradigms: Peasants, Labor, and the Capitalist World System in Africa and Latin America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 3–20Google Scholar; Joseph, Gilbert M., ed., Reclaiming the Political in Latin American History: Essays from the North (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tinsman, Heidi, “A Paradigm of Our Own: Joan Scott in Latin American History,” American Historical Review 113 (December 2008): 1357–1374CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Weinstein, Barbara, “Developing Inequality,” American Historical Review 113 (February 2008): 1–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For superb recent reflections on temporality by historians in dialogue with theory and social science, see Sewell, William H. Jr., Logics of History: Social Theory and Social Transformation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Chan, Shelly, Diaspora's Homeland: Modern China in the Age of Global Migration (Durham: Duke University Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5. For pioneering articles by John V. Murra and Karen Spalding, see Murra, , Formaciones económicas y políticas del mundo andino (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1975)Google Scholar; and Spalding, De indio a campesino: cambios en la estructura social del Perú colonial (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1974)Google Scholar. See also masterful, Spalding's Huarochirí: An Andean Society under Inca and Spanish Rule (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

6. Before her flight from the Brazilian dictatorship and eventual arrival at Yale, Emilia Viotti da Costa had published a brilliant study of Brazilian slavery and its destruction: Da senzala à colônia, rev. ed. (São Paulo: Ciências Humanas [1966], 1982). For intellectually powerful books based on the dissertations of the students whose dynamism pulled me into their orbit, see Joseph, Gilbert M., Revolution from Without: Yucatán, Mexico, and the United States, 1880–1924 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Mallon, Florencia E., The Defense of Community in Peru's Central Highlands: Peasant Struggle and Capitalist Transition, 1860–1940 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Weinstein, Barbara, The Amazon Rubber Boom, 1850–1920 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1983)Google Scholar.

7. The wider comparative sensibility and engagement continues to inform his work. See the magisterial interpretation of US history as a making of nation and empire: Hahn, Steven, A Nation without Borders: The United States and Its World in an Age of Civil Wars, 1830–1910 (New York: Viking, 2016)Google Scholar.

8. For a more extended reflection on these themes, see Steve J. Stern, “Africa, Latin America, and the Splintering of Historical Knowledge: From Fragmentation to Reverberation,” in Confronting Historical Paradigms, Cooper et al., 3–20. On Latin American students and intellectuals within wider contexts of politics and society during and after the “Global Sixties,” excellent starting points include Gould, Jeffrey L., “Solidarity under Siege: The Latin American Left,” American Historical Review 114 (April 2009): 348–375CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Langland, Victoria, Speaking of Flowers: Student Movements and the Making and Remembering of 1968 in Military Brazil (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pensado, Jaime M. and Ochoa, Enrique C., eds., Mexico Beyond 1968: Revolutionaries, Radicals, and Repression during the Global Sixties and Subversive Seventies (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2018)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Mor, Jessica Stites, ed., Human Rights and Transnational Solidarity in Cold War Latin America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2013)Google Scholar.

9. Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage, [1963] 1966)Google Scholar; Genovese, Eugene D., Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made, (New York: Panethon, 1974)Google Scholar; Gramsci, Antonio, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Hoare, Quintin and Smith, Geoffrey Nowell, eds. and trans. (New York: International Publishers, 1971)Google Scholar. For insight on the ways agency and hegemony fostered a conceptual rethinking of state formation in Latin America by the mid 1990s, fundamental books are Joseph, Gilbert M. and Nugent, Daniel, eds., Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Mallon, Florencia E., Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

10. The tension between “subordination” and “agency” is explicit in the language of the introduction to the original edition. See Stern, Steve J., Peru's Indian Peoples and the Challenge of Spanish Conquest: Huamanga to 1640 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), xv–xixGoogle Scholar.

11. For “resistant adaption” in its initial formulation, see Stern, Steve J., ed., Resistance, Rebellion, and Consciousness in the Andean Peasant World, Eighteenth to Twentieth Centuries (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 8–13Google Scholar, 30–33, 71–75. For articles on other themes that emerged from research on Huamanga, see these articles by Stern, Steve J.: “The Struggle for Solidarity: Class, Culture, and Community in Highland Indian America,” Radical History Review 27 (1983): 21–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; “Feudalism, Capitalism, and the World-System in the Perspective of Latin America and the Caribbean,” American Historical Review 93 (October 1988): 829–872CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and “Paradigms of Conquest: History, Historiography, and Politics,” Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (quincent. supp., 1992): 1–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For the SSRC project and the big-picture canvas, see Larson, Brooke and Harris, Olivia, with Tandeter, Enrique, eds., Ethnicity, Markets, and Migration in the Andes: At the Crossroads of History and Anthropology (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12. See Degregori, Carlos Iván, “Harvesting Storms: Peasant Rondas and the Defeat of Sendero Luminoso in Ayacucho,” in Stern, Steve J., ed., Shining and Other Paths: War and Society in Peru, 1980–1995 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1998), 128–157Google Scholar, esp. 142–147; Degregori, Carlos Iván, Qué difícil es ser Dios: el Partido Comunista del Perú-Sendero Luminoso y el conflicto armado interno en el Perú: 1980–1999 (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2010), esp. 183–195Google Scholar; and Ponciano del Pino, “Family, Culture, and ‘Revolution’: Everyday Life with Sendero Luminoso,” in Stern, ed., Shining and Other Paths, 158–192, esp. 178–180. For comunero politics and the Sendero problem within a longer temporality, see Pino, Ponciano del, En nombre del gobierno: el Perú y Uchuraccay: un siglo de política campesina (Lima y Juliaca: La Siniestra Ensayos; Universidad Nacional de Juliaca, 2017)Google Scholar.

13. For reflection on Mexico as paradigmatic in considering Old Regime societies, see Stern, Steve J., The Secret History of Gender: Women, Men, and Power in Late Colonial Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 309–317Google Scholar. On the feminist encuentros and contexts of shifting activism and social thought in the 1980s and 1990s, fine starting points include Álvarez, Sonia E. et al. , “Encountering Latin American and Caribbean Feminisms,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28 (2002): 537–579CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sternbach, Nancy Saporta et al. , “Feminisms in Latin America: From Bogotá to San Bernardo,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 17 (1992): 393–434CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Massolo, Alejandra, Por amor y coraje: mujeres en movimientos urbanos de la ciudad de México (Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1992)Google Scholar; and Henríquez, Narda, ed., Encrucijadas del saber: los estudios de género en las ciencias sociales (Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1996)Google Scholar. For a review of historiography, see Caulfield, Sueann, “The History of Gender in the Historiography of Latin America,” Hispanic American Historical Review 81 (August-November 2001): 449–490CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

14. Thomas E. Skidmore was a bibliophile whose thematic range was evident in conversation as well as his many books and articles on Brazil, and his works of panoramic scholarship. For the variety of his works focused on Brazil, see for example Politics in Brazil, 1930–1964: An Experiment in Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967)Google Scholar; and Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought, 2nd ed. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1993)Google Scholar. For panoramic writings, see for example “Workers and Soldiers: Urban Labor Movements and Elite Responses in Twentieth-Century Latin America,” in Elites, Masses, and Modernization in Latin America, 1850–1930, Bernhard, Virginia, ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), 79–126Google Scholar; “Studying the History of Latin America: A Case of Hemispheric Convergence,” Latin American Research Review 33 (1998): 105–127Google Scholar; and Skidmore with Smith, Peter H. as co-author, Modern Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984)Google Scholar. Revised editions of this comprehensive text appeared in 1989, 1992, 1997, 2001, and 2005. James N. Green later joined the co-author team and revised editions have continued to appear. Francisco Scarano published on an astonishing range of themes, including Puerto Rican history as such, but his work also extends to a comparative or expansive register. For a sampling of the former, see Sugar and Slavery in Puerto Rico: The Plantation Economy of Ponce, 1800–1850 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984)Google Scholar; Scarano, ed., Inmigración y clases sociales en el Puerto Rico del siglo XIX (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1981); “Las huellas esquivas de la memoria: antropología e historia en Taso, trabajador de la caña,” in Sidney W. Mintz and Francisco Scarano, Taso, trabajador de la caña (Río Piedras: Ediciones Huracán, 1988), 9–50; “The Jíbaro Masquerade and the Subaltern Politics of Creole Identity Formation in Puerto Rico, 1745–1823,” American Historical Review 101 (December 1996): 1398–1431; and Scarano's comprehensive and influential text, Puerto Rico: Cinco siglos de historia (Bogotá: McGraw-Hill, 1993). Revised editions appeared in 2000 and 2007. For works in a comparative imperial register, see for example “Labor and Society in the Nineteenth Century,” in The Modern Caribbean, Franklin W. Knight and Colin Palmer, eds. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 51–84; “Liberal Pacts and Hierarchies of Rule: Approaching the Imperial Transition in Cuba and Puerto Rico,” Hispanic American Historical Review 78 (November 1998): 583–601; Scarano, ed., with Zamora, Margarita, Cuba: Contrapuntos de cultura, historia y sociedad/ Cuba: Counterpoints on Culture, History, and Society (San Juan: Ediciones Callejón, 2007)Google Scholar; Scarano, ed., with McCoy, Alfred, Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009)Google Scholar; and the comprehensive reader, Scarano, ed., with Palmié, Stephan, The Caribbean: A History of the Region and its Peoples (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Florencia E. Mallon's range was evident not only in her shift of substantive focus and her methodological innovations when she turned to research on Chile after writing deeply researched books and articles on Peru and Mexico, but also in the diverse genres of her publications on Chile. These include a community history written with literary flair: Mallon, Courage Tastes of Blood: The Mapuche Community of Nicolás Ailío and the Chilean State, 1906–2001 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005). In addition, see the Mapuche testimonial memoir of Rosa Isolde Reuque Paillalef, for whom Mallon served as editor, translator, and interlocutor: When a Flower is Reborn: The Life and Times of a Mapuche Feminist (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002); and Mallon's novel, Beyond the Ties of Blood (New York: Pegasus Books, 2012).

15. For Fujimori as political style and phenomenon, see Patricia Oliart, “Alberto Fujimori: ‘The Man Peru Needed?’” in Stern, ed., Shining and Other Paths, 411–424. The strategic aspect of memory came through forcefully in the oral debate. For the case file summaries on disappeared persons in Chile, see Detenidos desaparecidos: documento de trabajo, 8 vols. (Santiago: Arzobispado de Santiago, Vicaría de la Solidaridad, 1993). By 1993, the Vicaría had closed as an active vicariate, but its successor entity, the Fundación de Documentación y Archivo de la Vicaría de la Solidaridad, served as an important archive and documentation center. The wider context was the difficult post-dictatorship transition, in politics and society generally, and in the Church specifically. See Stern, Steve J., Reckoning with Pinochet: The Memory Question in Democratic Chile, 1989–2006 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010), 1–210CrossRefGoogle Scholar, esp. 106–135; and Cruz, María Angélica, Iglesia, represión y memoria: el caso chileno (Madrid y Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2004)Google Scholar. The Vicaría had itself been a successor entity to an ecumenical organization known as the Comité Pro-Paz (formally, Comité Ecuménico de Cooperación Para la Paz en Chile), whose closure Pinochet had forced in 1975. See J.Stern, Steve, Battling for Hearts and Minds: Memory Struggles in Pinochet's Chile, 1973–1988 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2006), 105–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16. Social actors in Chile made fundamental contributions that went well beyond the initiation of the new project, not only in the research process but also in many other ways. These included the evolution of the questions I was asking and the arguments in play, and involvement in team- based projects. See Garcés, Mario et al. , Memoria para un nuevo siglo: Chile, miradas a la segunda mitad del siglo XX (Santiago: LOM, 2000), esp. 5–33Google Scholar. Social actors also fostered my emerging awareness that to respond ethically to what was at stake in human terms, I would need to write an experimental book in an unusual authorial voice, different from the one I used in the second and third volumes of the trilogy on Chile. The introductory volume, written especially for general readers and students, relied on an ethnographic “life-story” mode of narration to make vivid what mattered in human terms; provided an afterword for each chapter as a device to enrich, extend, or unsettle the narration; and relied on life stories to provide a narrative basis that sets up the theory chapter, rather than the other way around—most of the theoretical discussion was back-ended rather than front-ended in the book. See Stern, Steve J., Remembering Pinochet's Chile: On the Eve of London 1998 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004)Google Scholar. Some experimentation, including the use of chapter afterwords, continued in the second and third volumes, but the narrative style followed conventions of academic historical writing more closely.

I should add that over time, social actors elsewhere in Latin America—notably other Southern Cone countries, and Peru and Colombia—also shaped my learning journey on the memory question. I learned much from engagement with the Social Science Research Council's project on memory, repression, and democratization, directed by Elizabeth Jelin and Carlos Iván Degregori in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Other important engagements were with conference initiatives and collaborative projects in Peru in the 2000s to consider achievements, limitations, and artistic spaces opened up for work on truth, memory, social critique, and repair in the aftermath of the 2003 truth commission report, and more recently, an initiative by Colombia's Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica to assess achievements and limitations of its victim-centered memory work, in dialogue with an emerging but fragile peace process. For a look at these initiatives, see for example Jelin, Elizabeth, Los trabajos de la memoria (Madrid and Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2002)Google Scholar; Jelin, Elizabeth, ed., Las conmemoraciones: las disputas en las fechas “in-felices” (Madrid and Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2002)Google Scholar; Pino, Ponciano del and Jelin, Elizabeth, eds., Luchas locales, comunidades e identidades (Madrid y Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno, 2003)Google Scholar; Degregori, Carlos Iván, ed., Jamás tan cerca arremetió lo lejos: memoria y violencia política en el Perú (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2003)Google Scholar; Milton, Cynthia E., ed., Art from a Fractured Past: Memory and Truth-Telling in Post-Shining Path Peru (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Huber, Ludwig and Pino, Ponciano del, eds., Políticas en justicia transicional: miradas comparativas sobre el legado de la CVR (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2015)Google Scholar; and Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica [Colombia] and Stern, Steve J., with Blanc, Jacob, Sharnak, Debbie, and Werner, Bridgette, La memoria nos abre camino: balance metodológico del CNMH para el esclarecimiento histórico (Bogotá: Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica, 2018)Google Scholar.