1 Richard K. Meade to Sec. of St. Lewis Cass, Dec. 10, 1858. Despatches, Brazil, Vol. 25. Records of the Department of State, National Archives (hereafter cited as DSR, NA).

2 El Nacional Argentino, Nov. 10, 1858, enclosed in the correspondence of James A. Peden, United States Minister to Argentina, to Cass, Nov. 10, 1858. Despatches, Argentina, Vol. 12. DSR, NA. The undated excerpt from the Commercial Times was reprinted in the New York Times on Feb. 20, 1859.

3 Nov. 12, 1858, enclosed in H. Robinson, United States Consul in Montevideo, to Cass, Nov. 13, 1858. Consular Despatches, Montevideo, Vol. 8. DSR, NA.

4 See the correspondence of Dec. 29, 1858 and Jan. 16, 1859 of James B. Bowlin, United States Special Commissioner to Paraguay, to Cass. Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA. See also Ynsfrán, Pablo Max, La expedición Norte-americana contra el Paraguay, 1858–1859 (Mexico-Buenos Aires, 1954-1958), II, 132–135 Google Scholar.

5 Peterson, Harold F., “Edward A. Hopkins: Pioneer Promoter in Paraguay,” The Hispanic American Historical Review, XXII (May, 1942), 258 Google Scholar.

6 Articles from El Semanario, Paraguay’s official gazette, and the Paraguayan white paper (Historia documentada de las cuestiones entre el gobierno del Paraguay y el de los Estados Unidos) were reprinted, El Nacional Argentino in Nov. and Dec. of 1858. These issues were enclosed in the Nov. and Dec. 1858 correspondence of James Peden and Benjamin Yancey, United States Ministers to Argentina. Despatches, Argentina, Vols. 12 and 13. DSR, NA.

7 Taylor Parks, E., Colombia and the United States 1765–1934 (Durham, 1935), pp. 288–297 Google Scholar, 331. The New York Herald on Oct. 4, 1858, applauded the appointment of Bowlin: “if we may judge by the harsh style of diplomacy he adopted in New Granada, there will be very little palavering in the Paraguay River.”

8 Ynsfrán, Pablo Max, “Sam Ward’s Bargain with President López of Paraguay,” The Hispanic American Historical Review, XXXIV (August, 1954), 313 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Box, Pelham Horton, The Origins of the Paraguayan War, Vol. XV, Nos. 3 and 4 of the University of Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences (Urbana, 1929), I, 28 Google Scholar.

10 Richardson, James D., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents (New York, 1897), VI, 2980 Google Scholar.

11 U. S. Congressional Globe, 35th Cong., 1858, XXVII, Part 2, 1963 and Part 3, 2578.

12 Ynsfrán, Expedición, I, 175–207.

13 One of the best sources on Hopkins’ conduct and on the expulsion of the company is Hopkins’ own correspondence with the Department of State from Nov., 1853 to Oct., 1854, Consular Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA. An indispensable source on these two intertwined questions is Claim Against Paraguay Under the Convention of 1859. Records of Boundary and Claims Commissions and Arbitrations (hereafter cited as Claim Against Paraguay) NA. In addition see volume I of Ynsfrán’s Expedición and Peterson’s “Edward A. Hopkins.”

14 The best account of these events is Page’s correspondence of Sept. 1, 25, 29, and Oct. 2, 1854 to James C. Dobbin, Secretary of the Navy. Claim Against Paraguay, Folio II. Important information is also contained in Page’s communication of Oct. 17, 1854 to Sec. of St. William Marcy. Special Agents, Vol. 19. DSR, NA.

15 On pages 275–279 of his book La Plata, the Argentine and Paraguay (New York, 1859) Page states that he had no intention of fighting. However, his communication of Oct. 2, 1854 (loc. cit.) supplies evidence to the contrary.

16 José Falcón, Paraguayan Min. of For. Affairs, to Marcy, Oct. 3, 1854, quoted in Manning, William R., Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 1831–1860 (Washington, 1932), X, 141–142 Google Scholar.

17 The pertinent correspondence is enclosed in Page to Marcy, Nov. 4, 1854. Special Agents, Vol. 19. DSR, NA.

18 Page’s version is found in his La Plata, 303–314; the Paraguayan version is found in Falcón to Marcy, Feb. 4, 1855, quoted in Manning, Diplomatic Correspondence, X, 152–153. Marcy recorded the pro-Paraguayan version of a member of the Water Witch crew on the back of Falcón’s note.

19 Buchanan to Hopkins, June 10, 1845. Instructions, Special Missions, Vol. 1. DSR, NA.

20 Hopkins to López, Nov. 10, 1845, cited in El Paraguayo Independiente, Aug. 22, 1846.

21 A complete treatment of this mediation is found in Ynsfrán, Expedición, I, 63–95.

22 Hopkins to Rosas, March 18, 1846. Special Agents, Vol. 13. DSR, NA.

23 Buchanan to Carlos María de Alvear, Argentine Minister to the United States, April 14, 1846. Quoted in Moore, John Bassett, The Works of James Buchanan, Comprising the Speeches, State Papers, and Private Correspondence (Philadelphia, 1908-1911), VII, 58–59 Google Scholar.

24 Buchanan to Hopkins, Mar. 30, 1846. Special Missions, Vol. I. DSR, NA. Wriston, Henry M. calls the Hopkins’ mission “one of the most extraordinary chapters in the history of amateur diplomacy.” Executive Agents in American Foreign Relations (Baltimore, 1923), p. 443 Google Scholar.

25 Marcy’s notes on the back of Falcón’s communication of Feb. 4, 1855, loc. cit.

26 The navigation company’s claims for $935,000 against Paraguay had been ignored until they enlisted the services of Senator Allen. Allen to Philip Gallup (treasurer of the navigation company), June 26, 1855. Claim Against Paraguay, Folio III.

27 Marcy to Fitzpatrick, Aug. 5, 1856. Instructions, Argentina, Vol. 15. DSR, NA.

28 The correspondence of Fitzpatrick’s mission has been reprinted in U.S. Congress, Executive Documents, Senate Documents, 35th Cong., 1st sess., 1857, No. 2, 46–50.

29 Moore, The Works of James Buchanan, XII, 242.

30 Of the leading newspapers in the United States only two mentioned these incidents, The New York Herald on Jan. 15, 1855, printed a letter from a “Looker On“ stating that those who had been in Paraguay spoke “very decidedly against” Hopkins. The New York Evening Post printed an anonymous letter which charged that the conduct of “our countrymen is not beyond the realm of censure“ in the Water Witch affair. Reprinted in the National Intelligencer, Apr. 13, 1855.

31 President James Buchanan: A Biography (University Park, 1962), p. 317.

32 Ibid., 324.

33 U.S. Congress, The Statutes At Large and Treaties of the United States of America (Boston, 1859), XI, 319 Google Scholar.

In the several months before the departure of the fleet in late September, 1858, a number of important American newspapers furnished the public with close coverage of its preparations. Their judgments of it tended to follow party lines. The pro-Buchanan (Washington) Daily Union and New York Herald made a strong defense of the justness of the American cause. The Herald went so far as to hail the expedition as “one of the most important naval demonstrations that has ever been made by this country; it will have as great and lasting influence abroad as any that has followed from the past achievements of our gallant little navy.” The New York Herald, Sept. 29, 1858. The fleet received further mention in the Herald’s issues of Oct. 4, Dec. 18, 20, and 31, 1858. For the Daily Union’s coverage see the editions of Oct. 2, 7, 19, and Dec. 7, 1858. The Whig organ, the National Intelligencer, and the Republican New York Tribune took the opposite point of view. The Tribune, noting rumors of a Brazilian-Paraguayan war, opposed the expedition on the grounds that the United States would be playing “second fiddle to a fourth-rate power like Brazil against such a feeble state as Paraguay.” The New York Tribune, Apr. 23, 1858. Additional coverage is in the Apr. 24, Aug. 6, Sept. 4, and Dec. 31, 1858 editions of this paper. On Oct. 4, 1858, the National Intelligencer conceded that the expedition was the “most formidable in our history,” but on Nov. 11, 1858, took the position that the dispute should have been settled through ordinary diplomatic channels since the United States was, in its opinion, clearly the guilty party in the Water Witch clash.

Somewhat between these positions was the New York Times. On Sept. 13, 1858, this paper disputed the justness of the American case vis-á-vis Paraguay by declaring the United States to blame for the Water Witch affair while charging that the difficulties of the navigation company were the result of Hopkins’ misconduct and that the company’s claims were “promoted as a speculative attempt to obtain an indemnity through our Government for losses incurred in the course of ordinary mercantile transactions.” Nevertheless, on Nov. 25, 1858, this paper approved of the expedition in the belief that such a demonstration of naval power would be beneficial to American commerce in that part of the world.

34 Richardson, Messages, VII, 3091. In the period from 1845 to 1859 the policy of the United States toward Paraguay had always been shaped by and subordinated to the larger diplomatic objectives of the United States in the Río de la Plata. During the Anglo-French intervention in the Plata (1845-1847) the United States had refused to recognize Paraguay, accepting instead the Argentine argument that such a move would aid the English and French in their struggle against Argentina. Buchanan to William Harris, Chargé d’affaires to Argentina, March 30, 1846. Instructions, Argentina, Vol. 15. DSR, NA. In 1853, on the other hand, the United States’ attempt to obtain a commercial treaty with Paraguay was only an afterthought of the attempt to secure treaties from Argentina and Uruguay. Sec. of State Daniel Webster to John S. Pendleton, United States Chargé d’Affaires to Argentina, Apr. 28, 1852. Instructions, Argentina, Vol. 15. DSR, NA. Therefore, the reason for the sending of the fleet in 1859 was in conformity with the general pattern of American-Paraguayan relations.

35 Cass to Bowlin, Oct. 6, 1858. Instructions, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA.

36 See: Hart, A. B., The Monroe Doctrine: An Interpretation (Boston, 1916), 136 Google Scholar; Henry M. Wriston, Executive Agents, 670; Maclay, Edgar S., A History of the United States Navy from 177S-1901 (New York, 1906), IV, 156 Google Scholar; Alden, Carroll S. and Westcott, Allen, The United States Navy (2d ed., rev., New York, 1938), pp. 275–276 Google Scholar; Bennett, Frank M., The Steam Navy of the United States (Pittsburg, 1896), p. 175 Google Scholar.

37 Ynsfrán, Expedición, II.

38 “Diario del Brigadier General Tomás Guido durante su misión al Paraguay, (1858-1859),” ed. Estanislao S. Zeballos, Revista de Derecho, Historia y Letras, VI (June, 1900), 497. This important diary by Urquiza’s top aide in Asunción and Acting Foreign Minister is printed in ibid., VI, 485–510 and VII (July, Aug., 1900), 34–52, 195–208. See also Julio Victorica, “Los Estados Unidos, el Paraguay, y la mediación Argentina de 1859,” ibid., VI, 393–394.

39 “Sam Ward’s Bargain,” 313–331.

40 López’s correspondence with José Berges, the Paraguayan commissioner, is reprinted in Ynsfrán, Expedición, Vol. II, Appendices III.

41 Ibid., 142.

42 Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, 1859. Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. DSR, NA.

43 Amaral to Brazilian For. Min., Feb. 3, 1859. Cited in Ynsfrán, Expedición, II, 138. This opinion is shared by Peterson, Harold F., Argentina and the united States 1810–1960 (New York, 1964), p. 175 Google Scholar; and Chaves, Julio Cesár, El Presidente López: Vida y gobierno de Don Carlos (Buenos Aires, 1955), p. 274 Google Scholar.

44 “Diario del General Guido,” VI, 488–503. The seriousness of Urquiza’s threat cannot be determined as Bowlin did arrive by that time. But if the statement is correct it indicates that Urquiza was more interested in his own objectives. James R. Scobie discloses that already in late October, 1858, Urquiza had hopes of utilizing the American-Paraguayan situation in such a way as to get American assistance against Buenos Aires. La Lucha por la consolidación de la nacionalidad argentina 1852–1862 (Buenos Aires, 1964), p. 216.

45 Ynsfrán, Expedición, II, 139.

46 See: Box, The Origins of the Paraguayan War, I, 35; Washburne, Charles A., The History of Paraguay, with Notes of Personal Observations and Reminiscences of Diplomacy under Difficulties (Boston, 1871), I, 247 Google Scholar; Thomas, Lately, Sam Ward “King of the Lobby” (Boston, 1965), pp. 222–224 Google Scholar; Warren, Harris Gaylord, Paraguay (Norman, 1949), p. 195 Google ScholarPubMed; Lawrence, Amos Mason, ed., Memoir and Correspondence of Charles Steedman, Rear Admiral, United States Navy, with His Autobiography and Private Journal, 1811–1890 (Cambridge, 1912), p. 192 Google Scholar; Peterson, Argentina and the U.S., p. 175. Professor Ynsfrán has partially revised the image of Bowlin by pointing out that Bowlin desired to demonstrate that the United States would not make abusive use of its power in Latin America, but would deal with these nations on a basis of reciprocal respect. See his Expedición, II, 159–160.

47 Steedman, Memoir and Correspondence, p. 200.

48 Bowlin to Cass, Dec. 20, 1858. Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA.

49 Bowlin to Cass, Jan. 16, 1859. Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA.

50 Bowlin to Cass, Jan. 25, 1859. Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA. This dispatch is misdated as Bowlin did not make his presentation speech until January 26th.

51 “Diario del General Guido,” VI, 508.

52 Expedición, II, 180–181.

53 Bowlin to Cass, Jan. 16, 1859, loc. cit. There was no prospect of a joint mediation, at any rate, as Brazil was opposed to such an undertaking.

54 Argentina and the U.S., p. 175.

55 Miller, Hunter, Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of America (Washington, 1948), VIII, 260–261 Google Scholar. The entire arbitration convention is printed on pages 259–264.

56 Warren, Paraguay, p. 195.

57 Bowlin had built a highly successful law practice in St. Louis and had given years of loyal service to the Democratic Party. He served as district attorney, judge and a member of the State House of Representatives in Missouri. He reached the apogee of his political career while serving in the United States House of Representatives from 1843 to 1854. The Biographical Dictionary of America, eds. Johnson, Rossiter and Brown, John Howard (Boston, 1906), IGoogle Scholar; Appleton’s Cyclopaedia of America Biography, eds. Wilson, James Grant and Fiske, John (New York, 1888), I, 339 Google Scholar; The New York Times, Sept. 8, 1858.

58 Annual meeting of the stockholders, Dec. 12, 1855. The Records of the United States and Paraguayan Navigation Company (microfilm) p. 34. The Rhode Island Historical Society, Providence, Rhode Island.

The reason for the hostility between Bramberger and the navigation company is not clear. But it is known that Bramberger was in Asunción in Jan. 1854, declaring that the navigation company had neither capital nor credit and would soon be bankrupt. Ynsfrán, Expedición, I, 136. And in 1855 the directors of the navigation company were bitter in denouncing Bramberger’s appointment as the United States consul in Asunción. Annual Meeting of the Stockholders, Dec. 12, 1855, loc. cit.

59 Bowlin to Cass, Jan. 25, 1859, loc. cit. At this time Bramberger was still the United States Consul in Asunción.

60 Bowlin to Cass, Dec. 20, 1858, loc. cit.

61 Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, 1859, loc. cit.

62 The navigation Company to Bowlin, Oct. 15, 1858. Claim Against Paraguay, Folio III. Marked “Private and Confidential.”

63 Bowlin to Cass, Dec. 29, 1858. Despatches, Paraguay, Vol. 1. DSR, NA.

64 Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, 1859, loc. cit.

65 Bowlin to Cass, Dec. 20, 1858, loc. cit.

66 Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, 1859, loc. cit.

67 “Diario del General Guido,” VII, 47–50.

68 Nicholas Vázquez, Paraguayan For. Min., to Bowlin, Feb. 6, 1859. Enclosed in Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, loc. cit.

69 Bowlin to Vázquez, Feb. 7, 1859. Enclosed in Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, 1859, loc. cit.

70 Bowlin to Cass, Jan. 25, 1859, loc. cit.

71 Yancey to Cass, Feb. 4, 1859. Despatches, Argentina, Vol. 13. DSR, NA.

72 Hunter Miller, Treaties, VIII, 189–201.

73 Bowlin to Cass, Feb. 17, 1859, loc. cit.