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Reconsidering Recruitment in Imperial Brazil*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

Hendrik Kraay
Hendrik Kraay*
Affiliation:
The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Extract

Third Sergeant Wenceslau Martins Leal may have misunderstood his orders for 18 July 1888 but his greater mistake was, in fact, carrying them out too well. With his patrol from the Sixteenth Infantry Battalion, he reported to the police subdelegate of Salvador’s São Pedro parish at 7:00 p.m. and received orders to arrest and take to the fort “all the vagrants that he could find, for the time had come for impressment [recrutamento forçado].” Because the subdelegate did not limit the number of men to be impressed and pointed out the best places to find such “vagabonds”—Dois de Julho Square and the nearby alleys—Leal concluded that he had unlimited authority to put his ten men to work on this “arduous task.” It only took an hour. In a first sweep, they picked up thirty-five men; in a second, seventeen more. Two resisted “tenaciously” and had to be forcibly subdued. By 8:00, the duty officer had developed serious misgivings about the large number of prisoners arriving at the fort. He checked with the subdelegate who denied having given such orders in the first place and released the detainees. An indignant Leal justified his actions on the grounds that he had merely followed orders to the best of his ability.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , July 1998 , pp. 1 - 33
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 1998

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Footnotes

*

I thank the Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Foundation, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, and the University of Texas at Austin for support during the research and writing of this article. An earlier version of this paper was presented to the Arquivo Público do Estado da Bahia’s conference, “O Exército Brasileiro e as Lutas Sociais, Século XIX,” 19 June 1996. Walter Frago Filho generously shared his invaluable notes on the policing of Bahia’s interior in the 1830s and 1840s; Roderick Barman and Onildo Reis David supplied me with additional sources, while Richard Graham, Peter Beattie, and an anonymous reader provided helpful comments on the manuscript. The following abreviations are used in the notes: Arquivo Público do Estado da Bahia, Seção de Arquivo Colonial e Provincial (APEBa/SACP); Arquivo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro (ANRJ), Seção do Poder Executivo (SPE); Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Seção de Manuscritos (BNRJ/SM); Arquivo do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico do Brasil (AIHGB); Brazil, Collecção das Leis do Brasil (CLB); Brazil, Anais da Câmara dos Deputados (ACD); Brazil, Anais do Senado (AS).

References

1 Wenceslau Martins Leal, “Parte”; Duty Captain, “Parte”; Commander of Arms to President, Salvador, 19 July 1888, APEBa/SACP, m. 3464.

2 Raimundo José da Cunha Mattos observed in the 1830s that Brazilian legislation referred to both volunteers and impressed men (obrigados) as recrutas … Repertório da legislação militar, actualmente em vigor no exercito e armada do Imperio do Brazil, 3vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia Imperial e Constitucional de Seignot-Plancher, 1834–42), vol. 1, p. 18. The use of obrigado to designate impressed men, however, did not catch on, for popular usage associated recruta with impressment; later army manuals accepted this definition, leaving the institution with no neutral generic term for all of its recruits, Amaral, Antonio José, Indicador da legislação militar em vigor no exercito do imperio do Brasil organizado e dedicado a S.M.I. pelo …, 2nd ed., 3 vols. (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia Nacional, 1870–72), vol. 1, part 1, p. 35Google Scholar. Informally, the term recrutado (recruited) appears in the documents, referring exclusively to pressed men.

3 Peregalli, Enrique, Recrutamento militar no Brasil colonial (Campinas: Editora da Unicamp, 1986)Google Scholar; McBeth, Michael C., “The Brazilian Recruit during the First Empire: Slave or Soldier?” in Essays Concerning the Socioeconomic History of Brazil and Portuguese India, Alden, Dauril and Dean, Warren, eds. (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1977), pp. 71–86 Google Scholar; Chiavenato, Júlio José, Os Voluntários da Pátria (e outros mitos) (São Paulo: Global, 1982), pp. 25–36 Google Scholar. To a lesser extent, this approach is also visible in Peter M. Beattie, “Transforming Enlisted Army Service in Brazil, 1864–1940,” Ph.D. diss., University of Miami, 1994, chaps. 1–2.

4 Pereira Silva, J.M., Discursos parlamentares (Rio de Janeiro: B.L. Gamier, 1870), p. 146.Google Scholar

5 Beattie analyzes the regional origins of Brazilian recruits in “Transforming,” chap. 6.

6 Graham, Richard, Patronage and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Brazil (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990);Google Scholar Meznar, Joan E., “Deference and Dependence: The World of Small Farmers in a Northeastern Brazilian Community, 1850–1900,” Ph.D. diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1986.Google Scholar Research on patronage and clientage has focused primarily on twentieth-century Brazil, in which the Old Republic’s coronelismo is held to empitomize this style of political and social relations, Roniger, Luis, Hierarchy and Trust in Modern Mexico and Brazil (New York: Praeger, 1990)Google Scholar; Lewin, Linda, Politics and Parentela in Paraiba: A Case Study of Family-Based Oligarchy in Brazil (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pang, Eul-Soo, Bahia in the First Brazilian Republic: Coronelismo and Oligarchies, 1889–1934 (Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1979)Google Scholar; Leal, Vitor Nunes, Coronelismo: The Municipality and Representative Government in Brazil, June Henfrey, trans., (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 Brazil, , Minister, of War, Relatónos (1828), p. 40; (1843), p. 15; (1868), pp. 47–48.Google Scholar

8 Lieutenant-Colonel Commmanding, Third Artillery, to Commander of Arms, Salvador, 5 July 1832, APEBa/SACP, m. 3389; Brazil, Minister of War, Relatório (1871), p. 3.

9 In 1829, the imperial government authorized Bahian authorities to recruit only up to two-thirds of full strength in the battalions stationed in the province, marginal note on President to Minister of War, Salvador, 24 November 1829, ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 114 (1829), fol. 21r. For other statements of this policy, see speech of Minister of War, 8 June, ACD (1866), vol. 2, p. 54; Brazil, Minister of War, Relatónos (1874), p. 3; (1883), p. 7.

10 Instruções, 10 July 1822, CLB.

11 Decisão 560, 3 November 1837, CLB; Governor of Arms to President, Salvador, 6 July 1825, APEBa/SACP, m. 3365.

12 On marriage rates, see do Nascimento, Ana Amélia Vieira, Dez freguesias da cidade do Salvador: aspectos socials e urbanos do século XIX (Salvador: Fundação Cultural do Estado da Bahia, 1986), pp. 114–115 Google Scholar; de Queirós Mattoso, Kátia M., Bahia, século XIX: urna província no império (Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1992), p. 151.Google Scholar

13 Acting Delegate to Police Chief, Inhambupe, 4 August 1856, APEBa/SACP, m. 6188; Recruiter to President, Santo Amaro, 17 July 1861, ibid. m. 3454.

14 Article 108, Lei 387, 19 August 1846, CLB; Brazil, Minister of War, Relatório (1848), p. 30. Eventually the government limited the recruitment ban to general elections, Decisão 108, 6 September 1848, CLB.

15 Articles 120–121, Lei, 18 August 1831; Articles 2–3, Regulamento 106, 7 December 1841; Articles 121–123, Lei, 19 September 1850, CLB.

16 Amarai, , Indicador, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 77–81.Google Scholar

17 Articles 9–10, Decreto 1299, 19 December 1853; Aviso Régio, 28 February 1811, CLB.

18 This view is well established in the historiography of Argentina, Slatta, Richard W., Gauchos and the Vanishing Frontier (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983),Google Scholar chap. 8; Rodriguez Molas, Ricardo, Historia social del gaucho (Buenos Aires: Ediciones Moue, 1968), pp. 278–281.Google Scholar In contrast, however, see Salvatore, Ricardo, “Autocratic State and Labor Control in the Argentine Pampas: Buenos Aires, 1829–1852,” Peasant Studies, 18:4 (1991), 251–274;Google Scholar and “Reclutamiento militar, disciplinamiento y proletarización en la era de Rosas,” Boletín del Instituto de Historia Argentina y Americana “Dr. E. Ravignani”, 3rd ser., vol. 5 (1992), 25–47.

19 Petition of Manoel Antonio da Silva Serva to King, Salvador, c. 1810s, BNRJ/SM, II–33, 21, 26; Brazil, Minister of War, Relatórios (1840), p. 7; (1872), p. 4. B.J. Barickman refers to several Bahian planters who considered recruitment a means of obligating the free poor to work for them, “The Slave Economy of Nineteenth-Century Bahia: Export Agriculture and Local Market in the Recôncavo, 1780–1860,” Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1991, pp. 376–377.

20 President to Minister of War, Salvador, 15 November 1841 (Secret), ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 117, fol. 118.

21 “Rellaçõo numerica dos presos rebeldes que desta Provincia sahirão para a de Janeiro, Corte do Rio,” Salvador, 13 November 1838, in Publicaçães do Arquivo do Estado da Bahia: a Revolução de 7 de Novembro de 1837 (Sabinada), 5 vols., (Salvador: Escola Typographica Salesiana, 1937–1948), vol. 4, p. 266 Google Scholar; Juiz de Direito to President, Vila Nova da Rainha, 7 November 1839, BNRJ/SM, I–31, 15 29. In subsequent reports, this judge reveals his principal concern to be removing former Sabinada rebels and sympathizers from his bailiwick, Jacobina, 29 November and 9 Dececember 1839, ibid.

22 President to Minister of War, Salvador, 6 March 1858, ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 123, fol. 1011.

23 On the stagnation of the south coast’s economy, see Barickman, B.J., “ ‘Tame Indians,’ ‘Wild Heathens,’ and Settlers in Southern Bahia in the Late Eighteenth and Early Ninteenth Centuries,” The Americas, 51:3 (January 1995), 365–366.Google Scholar The evidence for the rapid growth of Bahia’s interior is presented by Mattoso, Bahia, pp. 88–94.

24 Holloway, Thomas H., Policing Rio de Janeiro: Repression and Resistance in a 19th-century City (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).Google Scholar Other studies of policing in Brazil include Patricia Ann Aufderheide, “Order and Violence: Social Deviance and Social Control in Brazil, 1780–1840,” Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, 1976; Flory, Thomas, Judge and Jury in Imperial Brazil, 1808–1871: Social Control and Political Stability in the New State (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981);Google Scholar Huggins, Martha Knisely, From Slavery to Vagrancy in Brazil: Crime and Social Control in the Third World (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1985).Google Scholar On the poor house, see Fraga Filho, Walter, Mendigos, moleques e vadlos na Bahia do século XIX (Sào Paulo: HUCITEC; Salvador: EDUFBA; 1996), chap. 7.Google Scholar

25 “Prov. da Bahia. Relação dos Recrutados …,” 12 July 1842, ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 117, fol. 305v.

26 Governor to Capitão-Mor of Cachoeira, Salvador, 16 August 1814, APEBa/SACP, m. 169; President to Police Chief, Salvador, 21 November 1848 (printed circular), ibid., m. 6456. The commentary on the 1822 instructions and the amendments to them run to more than 50 pages in an 1870 legal manual, Amaral, , Indicador, vol. 1, part 1, pp. 34–90.Google Scholar

27 Petitions of José Thomaz Joaquim de Andrade to President, Salvador, c. September 1874, APEBa/SACP, m. 3757; and Joze Faustino, Salvador, c. 1829, ibid. m. 3370.

28 Hay, Douglas, “Property, Authority and the Criminal Law,” in Hay et al, Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth-Century England (New York: Pantheon, 1975), pp. 17–63.Google Scholar

29 Speech of Minister of War, 21 June, ACD (1838), vol. 1, p. 400.

30 Antonio Jose da Cruz e Menezes to President, Salvador, 23 April 1836, APEBa/SACP, m. 3485.

31 Bahia, , President, Relatório (1 March 1861), pp. 60–61.Google Scholar For similar concerns, see President to Minister of War, Salvador, 12 December 1862, ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 125, fol. 125.

32 Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding, Corpo Permanente de Polícia Militar, to Juiz de Direito, Salvador, 4 October 1833, Gazeta Commercial da Bahia, 8 November 1833, p. 2, col. 2.

33 Petition of José Gomes de Almeida to President, Salvador, c. 1873, APEBa/SACP, m. 3757.

34 For but one example of each, see petitions to the president from Joaquim Francisco Bahia, 12 January 1875, APEBa/SACP, m. 3496; Antonio Francisco do Rozario, c. 1826; Fablício [sic] Ribeiro, c. 1840, ibid., m. 3486; and Leonarda Francisca do Rozario, c. 1848, ibid., m. 3378.

35 In a typical list of pressed men, João da Costa Ferreira reported to the president that he was sending to Salvador two vagrants and two men accused by local landowners of stealing slaves and cattle, Feira de Santana, 11 November 1838, APEBa/SACP, m. 3814.

36 Delegado to President, Santo Amaro, 25 May 1843, APEBa/SACP, m. 6460.

37 Manoel Diogo de Sá Barretta e Aragão to President, Limoeiro, 18 January 1828, APEBa/ SACP, m. 3693; “R.am dos Recrutas …,” 30 April 1839, ibid, m. 3489; Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding, Second Battalion, National Guard, to President, Salvador, 16 August 1840, ibid, m. 3548.

38 Juiz de Paz to President, Jaguaripe, 17 November 1844, APEBa/SACP, m. 2442. In Salvador, Raigôzo made no attempt to have himself excused and, on 11 February 1845, he enlisted in the Depósito de Recrutas, “Recrutamento da Provincia da Bahia de 1844 em Diante,” ANRJ/SPE/ IG1, m. 118, fol. 942.

39 Manoel Maciel de Sá Barretto to Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding, Forty-Third Cavalry, Bom Sítio, 16 July 1827 (copy); Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding, Forty-Third Cavalry, to Governor of Arms, n.p., 20 July 1827 (copy), APEBa/SACP, m. 3367.

40 Governor of Arms to Vice-President, Salvador, 19 June 1827, APEBa/SACP, m. 3367.

41 Comandante Superior to President, Salvador, 5 August 1839, APEBa/SACP, m. 3539; and 15 April 1840, ibid., m. 3548.

42 Lieutenant Recruiter to Commander of Arms, Salvador, 2 September 1874 (Secret), APEBa/SACP, m. 3462. Four decades earlier, another recruiter presented similar proposals, Antonio Jose da Cruz e Menezes to President, Salvador, c. 1836, ibid., m. 3485.

43 Innocencio Eustaquio Ferreira d’Araujo to President, n.p., 15 May 1829, BNRJ/SM, II–33, 23, 41; Manoel Henriques Gomes Rego to President, Capim Grosso, 26 June 1857, APEBa/ SACP, m. 3698.

44 President to Minister of War, Salvador, 15 January 1848, ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 119, fol. 195r.

45 Hebe Maria Mattos de Castro, Ao sul da história: lavradores pobres na crise do trabalho escravo (São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1987); Metcalf, Alida C., Family and Frontier in Colonial Brazil: Santana de Parnaíba, 1580–1822 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 120–152.Google Scholar

46 Meznar, Joan, “The Ranks of the Poor: Military Service and Social Differentiation in Northeast Brazil, 1830–1875,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 72:3 (August 1992), 337–347.Google Scholar

47 Petitions to President from João Gonçalves dos Santos, Maragogipe, c. 1865, APEBa/SACP, m. 3490; Manoel João, Salvador, c. 1848, ibid., m. 3486; and Francisco Xavier, Salvador, c. 1862, ibid., m. 3493.

48 Commander of Arms to President, Salvador, 17 September 1873, APEBa/SACP, m. 3430. For a similar complaint, see Commander of Arms to President, 9 September 1862, ibid., m. 3404.

49 Hay, , “Property,” pp. 61–63;Google Scholar Roniger, Hierarchy, pp. 4–5.

50 Petition of Manoel Joaquim Custodio to President, Salvador, 14 June 1867, APEBa/SACP, m. 3415. For another example, see petition of Maria Francisca da Conceição to President, 3 January 1856, ibid., m. 3429.

51 For an explicit statement of what is often implicit in the exertions of behalf of impressed men—that they were not, contrary to recruiters’ assertions, vagrants—see petition of Antonia Luiza dos Santos to President, Salvador, c. 1839, APEBa/SACP, m. 3486.

52 Justice of the Peace to President, Maragogipe, 4 August 1839, APEBa/SCAP, m. 2471.

53 Artide 18, Lei 2033, 20 September 1871, CLB; Brazil, Minister of War, Relatório (1874), p. 5. On habeas corpus and impressment, see Manoel Joaquim do Nascimento e Silva, Synopsis da legislação brasileira até 1874 cujo conhecimento mais interessa aos empregados do Ministério da Guerra, 2 vols.(Rio de Janeiro: Typographia do Diario do Rio de Janeiro, 1874), vol 1, pp. 637–639.

54 Petition of Joze Thomaz de Oliveira to President, Salvador, 14 November 1861 (with enclosed testimonials), APEBa/SACP, m. 3493.

55 Commander of Arms to President, Salvador, 19 June 1861, APEBa/SACP, m. 3419.

56 Lindley, Thomas, Narrative of a Voyage to Brazil… (London: J. Johnson, 1805), pp. 195–196.Google Scholar

57 For one example of each of these strategies, see Capitão-mor to Governor, Maragogipe, 30 July 1808, BNRJ/SM, I–31, 28, 42; Major Commanding to President, Forte do Mar, Salvador, 5 August 1831, APEBa/SACP, m. 3700; “Lista de Recrutados,” [Maragogipe, c. 1828], ibid., m. 3749; Commander of Arms to President, Salvador, 15 March 1850, m. 3379,1 May 1854, ibid., m. 3697–1; 21 February 1852, ibid., m. 3383; “Rellação dos recrutas remettidos em 6 de Março de 1839,” ibid., m. 3489; Jozé Feliciano de Moraes Cid to President, Salvador, 28 June 1836, ibid., m. 3485.

58 On this point, see Fraga, Mendigos, chap. 8.

59 Here it is not necessary to distinguish among the different regimes under which Brazil recruited men for the war: regular army soldiers, designated (called-up) National Guardsmen, and the euphemistically-named Voluntários da Pátria. Coercion figured prominently in all three.

60 Jornal da Bahia, 2 November 1866, p. 1, col. 1.

61 For the Brazilian army’s policy toward inadvertently impressed slaves, see Kraay, Hendrik, “ ‘The Shelter of the Uniform’: The Brazilian Army and Runaway Slaves, 1800–1888,” Journal of Social History, 29:3 (Spring 1996), 637–657.Google Scholar

62 For examples, see petitions of Felippe de São Thiago Villasboas to President, c. 1865 (with supporting documents and the commander of arms’s commentary), APEBa/SACP, m. 3458–1; Luisa Maria de Sant’ Anna to President, 31 March 1865, ibid., m. 3462; Commander of Arms to President, 20 November 1868, ibid., m. 3437; “Relação dos Recrutas que dizem ter isenção,” 29 November 1868, ibid., m. 3419.

63 Pernambuco, President, Relatório (30 January 1865), p, 14; Manoel Pinto de Sousa Dantas to José Antônio Saraiva, Salvador, 13 August [1865], AIHGB, lata 272, pasta 31, doc. 12.

64 Antonio Lopes da Silva to President, Lençóis, 21 November 1866, APEBa/SACP, m. 3674.

65 Petition of Proprietors of Sugar Mills to President, Bom Jardim, c. 1865, APEBa/SACP, m. 3672.

66 Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding, Twentieth National Guard, to President, Jaguaripe, 22 April 1869, APEBa/SACP, m.3426.

67 João Calmon du Pin e Almeida to Subdelegate of Saubara, Engenho Cavalcante, 10 November 1868, APEBa/SACP, m. 3491.

68 Stevenson, Frederick James, A Traveller of the Sixties: Being Extracts of the Diaries Kept by the Late Frederick James Stevenson of His Journeyings and Explorations … (London: Constable & Co., 1929), p. 92.Google Scholar

69 Major Encarregado do Recrutamento to Chief of Police, Morro de São Paulo, 10 November 1865, APEBa/SACP, m. 6453.

70 Joao Florentino Meira de Vasconcelos to Sr. Vellozo [sic], Ceicó [?], 13 February 1868, ANRJ/Arquivos Particulares/RQ, Cx. 7, CP 1. The violent seizure of recruits was particularly frequent in Pernarabuco (or at least the provincial president regularly reported it), Pernambuco, President, Relatónos (1 March 1866), p. 2; (15 April 1867), pp. 5–6.

71 Lieutenant-Colonel Commanding, Ninth Infantry Battalion, “Relatório,” 1 January 1889, ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 129 (1889), fol. 29v; Brazil, Minister of War, Relatórios (1837), p. 6; (1843), p. 20.

72 de Soisa, Francisco Manoel Soares, Generalidades médicas acerca do recrutamento (Rio de Janeiro: Typographia do Brasil de J.J. da Rocha, 1845), p. 19 Google Scholar; de Carvalho e Albuquerque, Virgílio Pires, Hygiene militar em campanha (Salvador: Typographia do Diario, 1870), p. 7.Google Scholar

73 de Souza, Antônio Moniz, “Viagens e observações de hum brasileiro …,” Revista do Instituto Geográfico e Histórico da Bahia, 72 (1945), 37.Google Scholar

74 Barickman, , “Slave Economy,” p. 220.Google Scholar

75 Silva, , Discursos, p. 154.Google Scholar In fact, Spain had, since 1837, recruited its soldiers through a draft lottery similar to that which Silva was then advocating, Núria Sales de Bohigas, “Servicio militar y sociedad en la España del Siglo XIX,” in Bohigas, , Sobre esclavos, reclutas y mercaderes de quintas (Barcelona: Ariel, 1974), pp. 207–277.Google Scholar

76 Some of these debates have been analyzed, but in unfortunate isolation from their predecessors or successors, de Souza, Jorge Prata, Escravidão ou morte: os escravos brasileiros na Guerra do Paraguai (Rio de Janeiro: Mauad and ADESA, 1996), pp. 41–49;Google Scholar Beattie, , “Transforming,” pp. 126–148.Google Scholar

77 Debate on the Ceará recruitment exemptions can be followed in ACD (1827), vol. 4, pp. 83–84,153–155, 210–212, and 253; vol. 5, p. 105; (1828), vol. 1, pp. 22 and 159–161; vol. 2, pp. 30–38 and 193–196. On the baroness’s son, see ACD (1843), vol. 1, pp. 369 and 372. On the rogue recruiters, see ACD (1865), vol. 1, p. 97.

78 See, for examples, speech of João Coelho Bastos, 10 May, ACD (1847), vol. 1, pp. 36–37; and Silva, , Discursos, p. 154.Google Scholar

79 Skelley, Alan Ramsey, The Victorian Army at Home: The Recruitment and Terms and Conditions of the British Regular (London: Croom Helm; Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1977), p. 251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar French and Prussian recruitment is compared in Howard, Michael, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870–1871 (New York: MacMillan, 1961), pp. 11–14,Google Scholar 18–21, and 29–35. On contemporary European conscription systems, see de Bohigas, Núria Sales, “Some Opinions on Exemption from Military Service in Nineteenth-Century Europe,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 10:3 (April 1968), 261–289.Google Scholar

80 Speech of Dom Manoel de Assis Mascarenhas, 10 May, ACD (1847), vol. 1, pp. 38–39. See, for other examples, speeches of Raimundo Jose da Cunha Mattos, 8 August, ACD (1827), vol. 4, p. 75; and Joaquim Manuel de Macedo, 5 June, ACD (1865), vol. 2, p. 34.

81 Session of 8 August, ACD (1827), vol. 4, pp. 75–78; Brazil, , Minister of War, Relatórios (1866), p. 23; (1867), p. 9.Google Scholar

82 See the debate of 16 August, ACD (1831), vol. 2, p. 43; and Speech of Manoel Inácio de Carvalho Mendonça, 15 May, ACD (1847), vol. 1, p. 78.

83 Speech of Francisco de Souza Martins, 12 June, ACD (1834), vol. 1, p. 129. Beattie notes the reappearance of this position in the 1870s, “Transforming,” pp. 141–142.

84 ACD (1834), (1835); Lei 55, 6 October 1835, CLB.

85 Lei 2556, 26 September 1874, CLB. The enabling legislation revised the original law slightly, Decreto 5881, 27 February 1875, CLB.

86 With its extensive exemptions and provisions for cash commutation and substitution, it should be added, the Brazilian law harked back to the French laws of 1818 and 1832, drawing no inspiration from the contemporaneous post-Franco-Prussian War reforms that, by the end of the century, would make universal military service a reality in France, Schnapper, Bernard, Le remplacement militaire en France: quelques aspects politiques, économiques et sociaux du recrutement au XIXe siècle (Paris: SEVPEN, 1968)Google Scholar; Mitchell, Allan, Victors and Vanquished: The German Influence on Army and Church in France after 1870 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984);Google Scholar Ralston, David B., The Army of the Republic: The Place of the Military in the Political Evolution of France, 1871–1914 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), pp. 32–48 and 96–100.Google Scholar

87 Beattie, Peter M., “The House, the Street, and the Barracks: Reform and Honorable Masculine Social Space in Brazil, 1864–1945,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 76:3 (August 1996), 447–448.Google Scholar

88 Decretos 5995, 6054, and 6066, of 17 September, 13 and 18 December 1875, respectively, each authorized the incorporation of a draft-lottery insurance company, CLB.

89 For examples, see Bahia, , President, Relatório (4 October 1887), pp. 32–33;Google Scholar Brazil, , Minister of War, Relatório (1883), pp. 10–11.Google Scholar

90 Dudley, William S., “Professionalisation and Politicisation as Motivational Factors in the Brazilian Army Coup of 15 November 1889,” Journal of Latin American Studies, 8:1 (May 1976), 114.Google Scholar

91 Junta Parochial to President, Morro do Fogo, 1 August 1877; APEBa/SACP, m. 3477; Junta Parochial to President, Santo Antonio da Barra, 15 August 1886; “Acta dos trabalhos …,” Nossa Senhora da Graça de Maracás, 1 August 1888 (copy), ibid., m. 3480.

92 Curiously, the proportion of parishes completing their 1879 registrations increased the greater the distance from Salvador, the center of state power. By early 1882, none of the capital’s 18 parishes and only one of Cachoeira’s 16 had reported for 1879, while all but 3 of the 30 parishes in 7 sertão municipalities had completed their work, “[Title Illegible], relativamente ao anno de 1879,” 4 February 1882, APEBa/SACP, m. 3482.

93 Speech of José Xavier da Silva Capanema, 18 August, ACD (1869), vol. 4, p. 144. On inheritance and land law, see Metcalf, , Family and Frontier, pp. 87–119 Google Scholar; Dean, Warren, “Latifundia and Land Policy in Nineteenth-Century Brazil,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 51:4 (November 1971), 606–625.Google Scholar

94 Meznar, , “Ranks,” p. 350;Google Scholar see also Beattie, , “House,” pp. 448–451.Google Scholar

95 Bahia, , President, Relatório (1 May 1876), pp. 8 and 35–36; Vice-President to Minister of War, Salvador, 4 August 1875 (copy), APEBa/SACP, m. 3434.Google Scholar

96 Junta Parochial to President, Santíssimo Coração de Jesus, 1 August 1875, APEBa/SACP, m. 3477; Junta Parochial to President, Santa Anna de Serapuhy, 1 August 1875, ibid., m. 3484–1; Vigário to President, Vila do Prado, 8 October 1875, ibid., m. 3484–1.

97 Vice-President to Minister of War, Salvador, 28 July 1875 (secret draft); Commander of Arms to Vice-President, Salvador, 29 July 1875 (secret); Vice-President to Minister of War, Salvador, 4 August 1875 (copy), APEBa/SACP, m. 3434.

98 “Mappa demonstrativa dos alistados para o serviço militar …,” 8 August 1877, APEBa/ SACP, m. 3482.

99 Brazil, Minister of War, Relatórios (1878), p. 8; (1882), p. 9; (1884), p. 3; Commander of Arms to President, Salvador, 7 February 1883 (secret), APEBa/SACP, m. 3446.

100 Dain Borges has stressed the inability of reformers to modify Bahian family life in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, The Family in Bahia, Brazil, 1870–1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992).

101 Speech of Manoel Pinto de Souza Dantas, 6 May, AS (1886), vol. 1, pp. 13–14.

102 Commander of Arms to President, Salvador, 19 December 1885, APEBa/SACP, m. 3455; and 12 June 1886, ibid., m. 3463.

103 Speech of Baron of Cotegipe, 7 May, AS (1886), vol. 1, p. 22. He had probably seen the results of an internal army investigation into the case, [Untitled Statements of Eight Soldiers], 10 January 1886, ANRJ/SPE/IGl, m. 129, fols. 49r-50v, 67r-v. Although none of the soldiers testified that they had been mistreated, two reported receiving threats, a detail that Cotegipe conveniently overlooked.

104 Speech of Minister of War (responding to Cotegipe), 11 July, AS (1868), vol. 3, pp. 100–101; Speech of João Maurício Wanderley (later Baron of Cotegipe), 24 July, ACD (1846), vol. 2, pp. 312–313.

105 Speech of Joaquim Jeronimo Fernandes da Cunha, 7 May, AS (1886), vol. 1, p. 27.

106 “Relação de 8 praças chegadas da Bahia em 12 de Dezembro de 1885 …,” 7 August 1886 [with later annotations], ANRJ/SPE/IG1, m. 129 (1886), fol. 49.

107 The final implementation of conscription is analyzed in McCann, Frank D., “The Nation in Arms: Obligatory Military Service during the Old Republic,” in Alden, and Dean, , eds., Essays, pp. 211–243;Google Scholar Beattie, , “House,” pp. 445–473.Google Scholar

108 See, for examples, Beattie’s discussion of gender and social space, “House,” pp. 439–473; José Antonio Serrano Ortega’s analysis of Mexican federalism, El contingente de sangre: los gobiernos estatales y departmentales y los métodos de reclutamiento del ejercito permanente mexicano, 1824–1844 (Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia y Historia, 1993); and Isser Woloch’s examination of the growing power of the French state before 1814, “Napoleonic Conscription: State Power and Civil Society,” Past and Present 111 (May 1986), 101–129.

109 de Carvalho, José Murilo, Teatro de sombras: a política imperial (São Paulo: Vértice; Rio de Janeiro: IUPERJ, 1988).Google Scholar