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Mediation through Militarization: Indigenous Soldiers and Transcultural Middlemen of the Rio Doce Divisions, Minas Gerais, Brazil, 1808-1850

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 December 2015

Judy Bieber
Judy Bieber*
Affiliation:
University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico
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Extract

In 1825, a Maxakali Indian and soldier named Inocencio walked several hundred miles from northeastern Minas Gerais to the royal court in Rio de Janeiro, seeking an audience with Emperor Dom Pedro I. Accompanying him were 14 Indians from the vicinity of Belmonte, a town located on the border of Bahia and Minas Gerais. The journey, requiring several weeks, took Inocencio through thickly forested hilly terrain with few established roads.

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Tibesar Lecture
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The Americas , Volume 71 , Issue 2 , October 2014 , pp. 227 - 254
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014

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References

For their helpful insights and suggestions, I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers of this essay for The Americas. I am also grateful to Hal Langfur, Suzanne Oakdale, William Stanley, and students of my 2014 graduate seminar in Atlantic History, especially Celina Cavalcanti, Maggie DePond, David Korostyshevsky, and Rachel Spaulding, for providing constructive criticism along the way.

1. José Teixeira da Fonseca Vasconcelos [hereafter JTFV] to Guido Tomás Marlière [hereafter GTM], January 11, 1825, Revista do Arquivo Público Mineiro [hereafter RATM] 11 (1906), p. 49; JTFV to Estevão Ribeiro de Resende [hereafter ERR], January 7, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 59–60.

2. Bartholomeu José Bahia to Provincial President of Minas Gerais [hereafter PPMG], Bom Sucesso, Minas Novas [hereafter MN], August 11, 1825, Arquivo Público Mineiro, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil [hereafter APM], SP PP 1/15 caixa [hereafter ex.] 18 pasta 1.

3. ERR to JTFV, February 26, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 29.

4. Inventário, Nicolau Viegas de França, February 4, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 30–31.

5. Hal Lawrence Langfur, The Forbidden Lands: Colonial Identity, Frontier Violence, and the Persistence of Brazil’s Eastern Indians, 1750–1830 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006); and “The Return of the Bandeira: Economic Calamity, Historical Memory, and Armed Expeditions to the Sertão in Minas Gerais, Brazil, 1750–1808,” The Americas 61:3 (January 2005), pp. 429–461.

6. White, Richard, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires and Republics in the Great Lakes region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. x.Google Scholar

7. Lockhart, James, Of Things of the Indies: Essays Old and New in Early Latin America (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 99.Google Scholar

8. Pratt, Mary Louise, “Arts of the Contact Zone,” Profession 91 (1991), pp. 33–40.Google Scholar

9. Ibid., p. 34. The term ‘transculturation’ was proposed by Cuban sociologist Fernando Ortiz in the 1940s and further disseminated by Pratt in this essay and in her monograph, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London: Routledge, 1992).

10. A leading proponent of this view is Beattie, Peter M., The Tribute of Blood: Army, Honor, Race and Nation in Brazil, 1864–1945 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

11. Here I draw from Dean and Leibsohn’s distinction between organic hybridity, which does not fundamentally challenge the status quo, and intentional hybridity, which “has the power to shock, change, and revitalize.” Dean, Carolyn and Leibsohn, Dana, “Hybridity and its Discontents: Considering Visual Culture in Colonial Spanish America,” Colonial Latin American Review 12:1 (2003), pp. 5–36 Google Scholar, quoted from p. 8.

12. White, Richard, The Middle Ground. Other examples include Barr, Juliana, Peace Came in the Form of a Woman: Indians and Spaniards in the Texas Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007)Google Scholar; and Brooks, James F., Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001)Google Scholar.

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14. White, The Middle Ground, p. 52.

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16. Metcalf, Alida C., Go-betweens and the Colonization of Brazil, 1500–1600 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005), pp. 2–3, 6.Google Scholar The quote comes from Richard White, The Middle Ground, p. xi.

17. Consensus regarding the cultural and linguistic relationship of the Puri, Coroado, and Coropó Indi ans is lacking. Some classify them within the broader macro-Jê linguistic category, while Chestmir Loukotka posits a specifically Puri linguistic grouping. The eminent early twentieth-century ethnographer Curt Nimendeju believed that Puri represented a distinct language of its own. As we only have isolated vocabulary lists dating primarily from the nineteenth century, this uncertainty may never be resolved. Luft, Vlademir José, Maghelli, Luciana, Resende, Juliano, “Línguas indígenas: a questão Puri-Coroado,” Caderno de Criação 5:15(1998), pp. 4–11.Google Scholar

18. Ana Paula de Paula Loures de Oliveira, “Ruptura, continuidade e simultaneidade cultural: a ocupação pré-histórica de grupos Jê e Tupi na Zona da Mata mineira,” Mesa Redonda Arqueologia em MG, IV Semana de História, Caminhos de Minas, Universidade Federal de S. João, November 22–26, 2004; Vlademir José Luft, “Da história à pré-história: as ocupações das sociedades Puri e Coroado na Bacia do Alto Rio Pomba (O caso da Serra da Piedade)” (PhD diss.: IFCS-UFRJ, 2000).

19. Beattie, Peter M., The Tribute of Blood Google Scholar; Kraay, Hendrik, Race, State and Armed Forces in Independence-Era Brazil: Bahia, 1790s-1840s. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; Kraay, , “Reconsidering Recruitment in Imperial Brazil,” The Americas 55:1 (July 1998), pp. 1–33 Google Scholar; da Silva, Kalina Vanderlei P., “Dos criminosos, vadios e de outros elementos incômodos: uma reflexão sobre o recrutamento e as origens sociais dos militares coloniais,” Locus, Revista ie História 8:1 (2002), pp. 79–92.Google Scholar

20. Paiva, Adriano Toledo, “‘O domínio dos índios’: catequese e conquistanos sertões de Rio Pomba (1767–1813),” (MA thesis: Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 2009), pp. 142–147, 158–168, 185–195.Google Scholar

21. Bento first served as godparent (padrinho), to the son of a Kapoxó chief, in the 1790s. Bernardo José de Lorena to D. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, June 18, 1798, Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Lisbon, Portugal [hereafter AHU], Minas Gerais [hereafter MG] roll 130, ex. 145, p. 5.

22. Wied-Neuwied, Maximiliano, Viagem ao Brasil (Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia/USP, 1989), pp. 196, 209 Google Scholar; Mapa dos praças do destacamento do Alto dos Bois, February 7, 1815, APM SG cx. 93 pasta 19; Caetano José Coelho to the King, April 8, 1815, APM SG cx. 93 pasta 61.

23. King to D. Manoel de Portugal e Castro, two letters dated September 12, 1820, and September 14, 1820, Arquivo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [hereafter AN] IGI 204.

24. Carta régia, September 12, 1820, and January 4, 1821, AN IGI 204.

25. King to D. Manoel de Portugal e Castro, and copy of royal license issued by Tomas Antonio de Villanova Portugal, RJ, both dated September 14, 1820, AN IGI 204; José da Silva Brandão to Julião Fernandes Leão, January 12, 1821, APM, cód SC 373, p. 36v-37.

26. D. Manoel de Portugal e Castro to Conde de Palmela, January 19, 1821, AN IGI 204.

27. Inocêncio Gonçalves, Captain of the Botocudo Indians, to Francisco Manoel da Silva e Mello, MN, January 8, 1821, AN IGI 204.

28. Petition signed by Feliciano Rodrigues de Oliveira, Joaquim Fagundes, Pedro Rodrigues, Francisco Martins, Malaquias Rodrigues, Luis Martins Fagundes, Manoel Pereira Sepuldra, Antonio de Camargos Lira, and Valerio Rodrigues de Oliveira, MN, no date [ca. 1820–21], AN IGI 204.

29. Parecer, Ouvidor da Comarca do Serro do Frio, January 3, 1819, APM SG cx. 109 doc. 12.

30. Governor Lorena to Sousa Coutinho. September 27, 1801, AHU-MG cx. 159 doc. 39; Requerimento de José Pereira Freire de Moura, March 22, 1803, AHU-MG cx. 166 doc. 40; Gov. Ataíde e Melo to D. João, November 21, 1803, AHU-MG cx. 168 doc 48; Ataide e Melo to the King, September 14, 1804, AHU-MG cx. 172 doc. 13.

31. José Pereira Freire de Moura, “Notícia e observacõens sobre os indios Botocudos que frequentão as margens do Rio Jequitinhonha. E se chamão ambares ou aymorés,” RAPM2 (1897), pp. 28–36.

32. Ibid.

33. Parecer, Ouvidor da Comarca do Serro do Frio, January 3, 1819, APM SG cx. 109 doe. 12.

34. Leào’s transfer was effectively a promotion to provincial Indian Director, a post he occupied only briefly before being imprisoned for his pro-Portuguese political sympathies during the fight for Brazilian independence. Bazilio Carvalho Daemon, Província do Espírito Santo, descoberta, historia chronologica, synopsis e estatistica (Vitória: Typ. do Espirito-Santense, 1879), pp. 253, 255–259; Braz da Costa Rubim, Memorias históricas e documentadas da provincia do Espirito Santo (Vitória, 1861), pp. 139–141; Carlos Frederico de Paula to Balthazar de Souza Botelho e Vasconcelos, April 30, 1821, Arquivo Histórico do Exército, Rio de Janeiro [hereafter AHEX], cod. 21, Capitania do ES, 1808–1824, p. 135–135v; Paula to the provincial governor of ES, January 7, 1822, AHEX, cod. 21, Capitania do ES 1808–1824, p. 152–152v; “Manifesto do Cel. Julião Fernandes Leão, prezo na Ilha das Cobras, contra o seo injusto aceusador o Cel. Fernando Telles da Silva, Commandante das Armas da Província do Espírito Santo. Offerecido ao Público sensato em principio de justificação, March 10, 1825, AN IGI 256, Série Guerra—ES; Decreto n. 31, January 28, 1824; Portaria of November 4, 1825, Diário Fluminense (Rio de Janeiro), November 12, 1825.

35. D. Manoel de Portugal e Castro to Conde de Palmela, January 19, 1821, AN IG1 204.

36. Guido Tomás Marlière [hereafter GTM] to Provincial President of Minas Gerais [hereafter PPMG], February 15, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 563.

37. Ibid.

38. GTM to Sgt. Justiniano de Rodrigues da Costa, September 1, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 472–474.

39. GTM to PPMG, February 18, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 570–571.

40. Afranio de Mello Franco, Guido Thomaz Martire: “O Apóstolo das Selvas Mineiras” (Belo Horizonte, MG, 1914); Oilam José, Marlière, o civilizador. Esboço biogràfico. (Belo Horizonte, MG: Editora Itatiaia Limitada, 1958), pp. 19–39; José Otávio Aguiar, Memorias e historias de Guido Tomás Marlière (1808–1836). A transferencia da Corte Portuguesea e a tortuosa trajetória de um revolucionário francés no Brasil (Campina Grande: Ed. da Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, 2008); Thiago Henrique Mota Silva, “Guido Thomaz Marlière e os índios Botocudo nos sertões do Leste (1818–1824),” Revista de Ciências Humanas, 10:2 (2010), pp. 361–375.

41. Judy Bieber, “Of Cannibals and Frenchmen: The Production of Ethnographic Knowledge in Early Nineteenth-Century Brazil.” Interletras: Revista Transdisciplinar de Letras, Educação e Cultura (UNIGRANMS, Dourados) 1:5 (July-December 2006). http://www.interletras.com.br/ed_anteriores/n5/index.html, accessed on August 4, 2014.

42. Warrant dated August 13, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 474; GTM to PPMG, September 1, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 474–475.

43. João Severiano Maciel da Costa to GTM, September 22, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 455–456.

44. JTFV to GTM, August 20, 1824, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 57.

45. GTM to PPMG, January 18, 1825. RAPM 10 (1905), p. 554.

46. JTFV to GTM, January 11, 1825, RAPMU (1906), p. 49; JTFV to ERR, January 7, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 59–60.

47. GTM to PPMG, February 19, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 572–573.

48. GTM to PPMG, February 18, 1825, RAPM10 (1905), pp. 570–571; GTM to PPMG, August 27, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 626–627; JTFV to ERR, March 29, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 62; GTM to Padre Lidoro, May 31, 1825, APM cód. SC 373, p. 178v.

49. GTM to Commander of Sixth Division, February 18, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 572.

50. “pelo canal impuro deste imposter.” GTM to PPMG, February 18, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 570–571.

51. GTM to Padre Lidoro, March 1, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 574–575.

52. GTM, Ordem, February 17, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 573; GTM to Tenente General, March 9, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 581; GTM to PPMG, March 9, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 581–582.

53. JTFV to ERR, March 29, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 62; JTFV to João Vieira de Carvalho, April 11, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 63–64.

54. GTM to PPMG, May 4, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 604; GTM to Tenente General, May 4, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 604–605; ERR to GTM, May 28, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 34.

55. GTM to PPMG, June 28, 1825, APM cód SC 373, p. 187–187v.

56. GTM to Commander of Sixth Division, September 10, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 636.

57. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, “Ambivalent Authorities: The African and Afro-Brazilian Contribution to Local Governance in Colonial Brazil,” The Antericas 57:1 (2000), pp. 13–36; Laura de Mello e Souza, Desclassificados de auro. A pobreza mineira no século XVIII. (Rio de Janeiro: Graal, 1982).

58. Portaria, September 9, 1824, RAPM 11 (1905), p. 482.

59. GTM to PPMG, September 1, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 474–475; GTM to Lidoro, May 13, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 173–174; [erroneously written as João de las Casas] GTM to Lidoro, April 27, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 160.

60. GTM to PPMG, August 27, 1825; GTM to Tenente General, August 27, 1825, RAPAM 10 (1905), pp. 626–627, 629.

61. GTM to PPMG, December 10, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 666.

62. GTM to PPMG, August 27, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 626–627; GTM to Indian Director of Jequitinhonha, December 12, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 668; Baron of Valença to PPMG, October 24, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 94.

63. GTM to PPMG, June 5, 1825, APM cód SC 373, p. 180v.

64. GTM to PPMG, December 14, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 524–525.

65. GTM to Antonio José Coelho, December 14, 1824, RAPM 10, 1905, pp. 527–528; GTM to Antonio José Coelho, December 31, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 536.

66. Mapa das Divisões, January 1, 1832, APM PP 15. 90 pasta 48; Mapa de população de Cuieté, undated [ca. 1840], APM MP ex. 2 pasta 12. This census estimates their ages in round numbers, Norberto as 40, and his elder brother José as 50.

67. GTM to Sr. Marechal, Oct. 26, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 502–503; GTM, Ordem, March 10, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 582–583.

68. JTFV to GTM, January 12, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 50; JTFV to ERR, January 12, 1825, RAPMU (1906), p. 61; GTM to Tenente General, April 6, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 593–596.

69. GTM to PPMG, May 4, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 604; ERR to PPMG, March 5, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 31–32.

70. B. J. Barickman, “‘Tame Indians,’ ‘Wild Heathens,’ and Settlers in Southern Bahia in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries,” The Americas 51:3 (January 1995), pp. 325–368.

71. GTM to Tenente General, April 6, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 593–596.; GTM to D. Pedro I, April, 1825, AN IGI 262.

72. GTM to PPMG, April 23, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 603; GTM to Indian Director at Jequitinhonha, August 11, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 621; GTM, Ordem, August 11, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 622; ERR to PPMG, March 5, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 31–32; JTFV to Lidoro, February 25, 1825, RAPMW (1906), pp. 51–52.

73. JTFV to ERR, July 14, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 66; JTFV to GTM, July 15, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 97; ERR to PPMG, August 17, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 92; JTFV to ERR, September 6, 1825, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 70.

74. GTM to Governor of Minas Gerais, January 3, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 539–540.

75. GTM to Commander of the Fifth Division, June 4, 1825, APM cód. SC 373, p. 179–179v; GTM to Tenente General, June 5, 1825, APM cód. SC 373, p. 180–180v; GTM to PPMG, June 5, 1825, APM cód. SC 373, p. 180v.

76. GTM to PPMG, August 27, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 626–627; GTM to PPMG, December 16, 1825, RAPM (1906), pp. 116–117.

77. GTM to PPMG, November 21, 1827; GTM to PPMG, January 7, 1828; GTM to PPMG, January 7, 1828. All three documents are in APM, SP PP 1/15 ex. 90 pasta 3.

78. GTM to Governador das Armas, March 2, 1828, RAPM 12 (1907), pp. 518–519; GTM to PPMG, March 26, 1828, RAPM, 12 (1907), pp. 522–524.

79. GTM to Governador das Armas, June 15, 1828, RAPM 12 (1907), p. 542; Norberto Medeiros to GTM, June 6, 1828, APM, SP PP 1/15 ex. 90 pasta 5.

80. Lizardo José da Fonseca to PPMG, April 30, 1829, APM, SP PP 1/15 ex. 90 pasta 7.

81. GTM to VPPMG, September 23, 1829, APM, SP 59; GTM to Sgt. Serafim José de S. Bernardo, December 10, 1829, APM, SP 59.

82. Ordem do Dia, May 1, 1830, APM, SP 59.

83. João Rodrigues de Vasconcelos, Justice of the Peace of Cuiethé, to PPMG, April 24, 1850, APM, SPPP 1/18 ex. 114 pasta 23.

84. GTM to Seventh Division, May 31, 1825, APM cód SC 373, p. 177v-178.

85. José Otávio Aguiar, “Legislação indigenista e os ecos autoritários da ‘Marselhesa’”: Guido Thomaz Marlière e a colonização dos Sertões do Rio Doce,” Projeto História [São Paulo] 33 (December 2006), pp. 90–94.

86. “Apontamentos sobre a vida do indio Guido Pokrane e sobre o Francez Guido Marlière. (oferecido pelo socio o ex. sr. Conselheiro Luiz Pedreira do Couto Ferraz),” Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 18 (1855), pp. 426–434; Maria Hilda Baqueiro Paraíso, “Guido Pokrane. O Imperador do Rio Doce,” Simpósio Temático: Guerras e Alianças na História dos índios: Perspectivas Interdisciplinares. XXIII Simpósio Nacional de História (ANPUH), Londrina, Paraná, July 17–22, 2005.

87. “Apontamentos sobre a vida do indio Guido Pokrane,” RIHGB 18 (1855), p. 428.

88. Ibid., p. 433.

89. GTM to Tenente General, April 6, 1825, AN IG1 262.

90. “Periodico de Minas—Abelha, 17 de fevereiro de 1825,” RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 566–567.

91. GTM to PPMG, May 18, 1825, APM cód SC 373, p. 174v-175; GTM to PPMG, May 30, 1825, APM cód SC 373, p. 177.

92. GTM to PPMG, May 18, 1825, APM cód SC 373, p. 174v-175.

93. Diário do Rio [Rio de Janeiro], July 10, 1840, pp. 1–2.

94. Felipe Joaquim da Cunha e Castro to PPMG, November 9, 1832, APM SP PP 15 ex 91 pasta 6; Relatório, February 28, 1833, SP PP 15 ex 91 pasta 14; “Apontamentos sobre Guido Pokrane,” RIHGB, p. 433; Paraíso, “Guido Pokrane. O Imperador do Rio Doce,” pp. 11–12; Diário do Rio, July 10, 1840, pp. 1–2.

95. Documentos e memorial relativos ao actual estado da Companhia do Rio Doce (Rio de Janeiro: Typ. Imp. E Const, de J. Villeneuve e Companhia, 1841).

96. Diário do Rio, July 2, 1840, p. 1.

97. Diário do Rio, July 10, 1840, pp. 1–2.

98. “O índio Guido Pocrane,” O Universal [Ouro Preto, MG], July 10, 1840, pp. 3–4.

99. Paraíso, “Guido Pokrane,” pp. 13–15.

100. índios Botocudos (Pokranes; Rio Doce), three letters, Linhares, 1841, Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro, Rio de Janeiro [hereafter IHGB], Lata 346 doe. 27.

101. Paraíso, “Guido Pokrane,” pp. 16–17; “Apontamentos sobre Guido Pokrane,” RIHGB, pp. 433–434.

102. He was interred upright on a hilltop grave, with food at his feet, including some bread and a few bottles of wine. Mello-Franco, Guido Thomaz Marlière, pp. 130–154.

103. Baron of Caeté to José Feliciano Fernandes Pinheiro, April 10, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 77–78; GTM to José Pereira Lidoro, May 13, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 173–174; GTM to Seventh Division, September 24, 1827, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 222.

104. GTM to PPMG, March 27, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 149; GTM to José Pereira Lidoro, April 27, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 160.

105. GTM to PPMG, December 14, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 524–525; GTM to Lidoro, December 14, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), pp. 525–526.

106. GTM to Commander ofthe Seventh Division, May 13, 1826, RAPM U (1906), p. 173; GTM to Commander ofthe Seventh Division, December 15, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 191; GTM to Governador das Armas, January 10, 1827 RAPM 11; (1906), p. 229; GTM to PPMG, January 10, 1827, RAPMll (1906), p. 196; GTM to Commander ofthe Seventh Division, December 15, 1826, RAPMll (1906), p. 191.

107. GTM to PPMG, March 26, 1828, RAPM 12 (1907), pp. 522–524.

108. http://citybrazil.com.br/mg/capelinha/index.php, accessed July 5, 2014.

109. GTM to Governador das Armas, APM, cód SP 37, May 13, 1826; Mapa das divisões, January 1, 1832, APM SP PP 1/15 ex. 90 pasta 48; GTM to Commander of the Seventh Division, December 30, 1824, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 535; GTM to Commander of the Seventh Division, November 15, 1825, RAPM 10 (1905), p. 653; GTM to Lidoro, May 13, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), pp. 173–174; GTM to Commander of the Seventh Division, June 12, 1826, RAPM 11 (1906), p. 178.

110. Serafim José de Bernardino, MN, to PPMG, January 30, 1838, APM SP PP 1/15 ex. 94 pasta 20; Manoel Gomes de Mello, Capelinha (MN) to PPMG, August 23, 1837, APM SP PP 1/15 cx. 94 pasta 20; José Gonçalves Senna to Juiz de Órfãos, MN, May 8, 1837, APM SP PP 1/15 cx. 94 pasta 20.

111. João Alves de Araújo to Municipal Council of Minas Novas, March 3, 1833, APM, SP PP 1/33, cx. 129 pasta 27.

112. Felipe Joaquim da Cunha e Castro to PPMG, September 30, 1832, APM, SP PP 1/15 cx. 90 pasta 67.

113. Municipal Council of MN to Provincial Council of MG, July 5, 1831, APM SP CGP 1/2 cx. 6 pasta 19.

114. Barbara A. Sommer, “Negotiated Settlements: Native Amazonians and Portuguese Policy in Pará, Brazil, 1758–1798,” (PhD diss.: University of New Mexico, 2000); Sommer, “Cracking Down on the Cunhamenas: Renegade Amazonian Traders under Pombaline Reform,” Journal of Latin American Studies 38:4 (November 2006), pp. 767–791; Alida C. Metcalf, Go-betweens.

115. Voigt, Writing Captivity, p. 25.

116. Alvaro Pereira do Nascimento offers an intriguing discussion of slaves who posed as free men in hopes of escaping captivity. “Do cativeiro ao mar: escravos na Marinha de Guerra,” Estudos Afro-Asiáticos 38 (2000), pp. 85–112.

117. Hendrik Kraay, “Em outra coisa não falavam os pardos, cabras e crioulos: o ‘recrutamento’ de escravos na guerra da Independência na Bahia,” Revista Brasileira de História 22:43 (2002), pp. 109–126.

118. A notable exception is discussed in Mary C. Karasch, “Damiana da Cunha: Catechist and Sertanista,” in Struggle and Survival in Colonial America, David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash, eds. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981) pp. 102–120.

119. See Morel, Marcos, “Cinco imagens e múltiplos olhares: ‘descobertas’ sobre os Índios do Brasil e a fotografia do século XIX,” História, Ciências, Saúde—Manguinhos 13 (supplement), (2001), pp. 1039–1058 Google Scholar; Chabert, X., A Brief Historical Account of the Life and Adventures of the Botocudo Chieftain, and family, now exhibiting at n. 23, New Bond Street, together with, a faithful description of the manners and customs of the savage inhabitants of the country they come from. (London: C. Baynes, 1822)Google Scholar; and Ottoni, Theophilo Benedicto, “Noticia sobre os selvagens do Mucury, em uma carta do Sr. Theophilo Benedicto Ottoni,” RIHGB 21 (1858): pp. 173–218 Google Scholar, especially p. 181.

120. Maximiliano Prince of Wied-Neuwied, Viagem ao Brasil (Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia/USP, 1989), pp. 309–315 Google Scholar; Viagem ao Brasil do Príncipe Maximiliano de Wied-Neuwied, Biblioteca Brasiliana da Robert Bosch, GmbH (Petrópolis: Kapa Editorial, 2001); Strauch, Von Ulrike, “‘Quäck’ nahm ein ausgesprochen trauriges Ende,” General-Anzeiger [Bonn], July 3, 2007, http://general-anzeiger-bonn.de/bonn/wissenschaft/Quaeck-nahm-ein-ausgesprochen-trauriges-Ende-article135536.html Google Scholar, accessed July 5, 2014. See also www.zuwied.de/hachenburg/pmw12.htm, accessed on August 5, 2014.