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Making Friends and Making Out: The Social and Romantic Lives of Young Communists in Chile (1958–1973)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 March 2019

Alfonso Salgado
Alfonso Salgado*
Affiliation:
Universidad Diego PortalesSantiago, [email protected]
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Extract

“B. D. Q. C.,” as he signed his letter, must have felt pretty special that New Year's Eve of 1973. Some time that evening, the 15-year-old Communist boy from Santiago de Chile kissed a 17-year-old Communist girl admired for her beauty by all the young Communists from the local headquarters of the Juventudes Comunistas de Chile (JJCC), or Jota, as the youth wing of the Partido Comunista de Chile (PCCH) was nicknamed. He had never dated an older woman before, and though he bragged about having kissed thousands of other girls, he had never truly fallen in love until then. “I dated her for only 13 days. We broke up, but every day that goes by I love her more and more,” he confessed in a letter to the editor of the young Communists’ magazine a few days later. To make matters worse for our lovelorn teenager, the object of his affection did not stay single for long. “She is now dating another guy from the Jota. Every day that goes by I grow more jealous of him and of everyone who talks to her, because even though I'm not with her any more, I dream we are still together, and I have hopes to be with her again.” The existence of a place like the JJCC local headquarters, which all the people involved in this romantic affair visited regularly, was the cause of both solace and affliction for this young man: “I waste the whole afternoon in the headquarters waiting for her to arrive and greet her, so my eyes can take her in. I think about her every minute, while she has thousands of things to think about, and I have only one.”

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Article
Information
The Americas , Volume 76 , Issue 2 , April 2019 , pp. 299 - 326
Copyright
Copyright © Academy of American Franciscan History 2019 

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Footnotes

I would like to thank my professors (Pablo Piccato, Nara Milanich, and Caterina Pizzigoni) and peers (Elizabeth Schwall, Marianne González, Sara Hidalgo, Paul Katz, Rachel Newman, and Daniel Kressel) at Columbia University for their input and encouragement. I would also like to thank the three anonymous reviewers of The Americas for their insightful comments and suggestions. I dedicate this study to my partner, Fabiola, who reawakened in me the feelings I happened to be writing about.

References

1. “El amor a los quince y medio,” Ramona 73 (Santiago), March 20, 1973, 34.

2. On the “long Sixties,” see Marwick, Arthur, The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, c.1958–c.1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 6–7Google Scholar.

3. According to Gladys Marín, the organization went from 400 members in 1962 to 80,000 members in 1973. Gladys Marín, La vida es hoy (Santiago: Editorial Don Bosco, 2002), 63. The earlier figure was probably higher than Marín suggests, but the speed of the growth is nevertheless impressive. According to party statistics, the number of members went from 21,308 in December 1969 to 34,138 in December 1970 to 57,500 in December 1971. See Carolina Fernández-Niño, “Revista Ramona (1971–1973): ‘Una revista lola que tomará los temas políticos tangencialmente,’” in Un trébol de cuatro hojas. Las Juventudes Comunistas de Chile en el siglo XX, Rolando Álvarez and Manuel Loyola, eds. (Santiago: Ariadna Ediciones, 2014), 128.

4. These estimates are mine. They are based on information gathered from oral-history interviews consulted in the Centro de Documentación, Museo de la Memoria y los Derechos Humanos [hereafter CEDOC-MMDH]; and the Colección Archivo Oral de Villa Grimaldi, Corporación Parque por la Paz Villa Grimaldi [hereafter CAOVG-CPPVG]. Endogamy was higher in the upper levels of the JJCC's organizational hierarchy, but the appeal of comradely love was not restricted to those who held leadership positions. On the marriage patterns of previous generations of Communists, see Alfonso Salgado, “Exemplary Comrades: The Public and Private Life of Communists in Twentieth-Century Chile” (PhD diss.: Columbia University, 2016), 76–77.

5. See for example “Este es el Partido que hay que fortalecer más todavía,” El Siglo (Santiago), June 29, 1969, 9; “Mujeres PC a toda máquina,” Ahora (Santiago), June 1, 1971, 14–15; and “La muchacha comunista: combatiente ejemplar,” El Siglo, March 4, 1973.

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17. On the role played by former Communists in the 1990s gay liberation movement, see Contardo, Raro, 378–390.

18. See for example Elsey, Brenda, Citizens and Sportsmen: Fútbol & Politics in 20th Century Chile (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011), 165–241Google Scholar; González, Yanko, “‘Sumar y no ser sumados’. Culturas juveniles revolucionarias. Mayo de 1968 y diversificación identitaria en Chile,” Alpha 30 (2010): 111–128Google Scholar; Mallon, Florencia, “Barbudos, Warriors, and Rotos: The MIR, Masculinity, and Power in the Chilean Agrarian Reform, 1965–1974,” in Changing Men and Masculinities in Latin America, Gutmann, Matthew, ed. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 179–215Google Scholar; and Moyano, Cristina, MAPU o la seducción del poder y la juventud. Los años fundacionales del partido mito de nuestra transición (1969–1973) (Santiago: Ediciones Alberto Hurtado, 2009)Google Scholar.

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20. Patrick Barr-Melej's fascinating recent book on the hippie movement in Santiago, for example, shows that the young men and women who participated in this movement interacted for the most part in specific locales and parks, and that activists from both the left and the right disparaged the hippies and sometimes attacked these places. Barr-Melej, Patrick, Psychedelic Chile: Youth, Counterculture, and Politics on the Road to Socialism and Dictatorship (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), 120–172CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21. Scholarship on the Sixties has been enriched by the growing interest in recent history and global studies. For some influential books, see Elbaum, Max, Revolution in the Air: Sixties Radicals Turn to Lenin, Mao and Che (New York: Verso, 2006)Google Scholar; Gorsuch, Anne and Koenker, Diane, eds., The Socialist Sixties: Crossing Borders in the Second World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; and Suri, Jeremi, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Détente (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003)Google Scholar. For some important contributions by Latin Americanists, see Gould, Jeffrey, “Solidarity under Siege: The Latin American Left, 1968,” American Historical Review 114:2 (April 2009): 348–375CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Langland, Victoria, Speaking of Flowers: Student Movements and the Making and Remembering of 1968 in Military Brazil (Durham: Duke University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Manzano, Valeria, The Age of Youth in Argentina: Culture, Politics, and Sexuality from Perón to Videla (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pensado, Jaime, Rebel Mexico: Student Unrest and Authoritarian Political Culture during the Long Sixties (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vaughan, Mary Kay, Portrait of a Young Painter: Pepe Zúñiga and México City's Rebel Generation (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Zolov, Eric, “Introduction: Latin America in the Global Sixties,” The Americas 70:3 (January 2014): 349–362CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

22. Vaughan, Portrait of a Young Painter, 3, 5.

23. On the relationship between the Old and the New Left in Latin America, see Markarian, Vania, “Sobre viejas y nuevas izquierdas. Los jóvenes comunistas uruguayos y el movimiento estudiantil de 1968,” Secuencia 81 (September-December 2011): 161–186Google Scholar; and Zolov, Eric, “Expanding Our Conceptual Horizons: The Shift from an Old to a New Left in Latin America,” A Contracorriente 5:2 (Winter 2008): 47–73Google Scholar.

24. The historical study of emotions has developed as a field only in the last ten to 15 years, although its origins can be traced back to Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre, Johan Huizinga, and Norbert Elias, in the first half of the twentieth century. Gay, Peter, The Bourgeois Experience: Victoria to Freud, 5 vols. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984-98)Google Scholar, is among the most impressive works from the past century. For more recent contributions, see Eustace, Nicole, et al. , “AHR Conversation: The Historical Study of Emotions,” American Historical Review 117:5 (December 2012): 1487–1531CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Rosenwein, Barbara, Generations of Feeling: A History of Emotions, 600–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25. See for example Goodwin, Jeff, Jasper, James, and Polletta, Francesca, eds., Passionate Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Goodwin, Jeff and Jasper, James, eds., Rethinking Social Movements: Structure, Meaning, and Emotion (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004)Google Scholar; Leclercq, Catherine and Pagis, Julie, “Les incidences biographiques de l'engagement. Socialisations militantes et mobilité sociale,” Sociétés Contemporaines 84 :4 (2011): 5–23CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Historians have caught on slowly, but there is already an interesting literature on the subject. For the case of Europe, see for example the special issue on emotions in protest movements edited by Häberlen, Joachim and Spinney, Russell in Contemporary European History 23:4 (November 2014)Google Scholar. There is also a growing interest in these issues among Latin American historians, especially among those who focus sex and love. See for example Cosse, Isabella, “Militancia, sexualidad y erotismo en la izquierda armada en la Argentina de los años setenta,” in Moralidad y comportamientos sexuales (Argentina, 1880–2011), Barrancos, Dora, Guy, Donna, and Valobra, Adriana, eds. (Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblios, 2014), 293–320Google Scholar; Green, James, “‘Who is the Macho Who Wants to Kill Me?’ Male Homosexuality, Revolutionary, Masculinity, and the Brazilian Armed Struggle of the 1960s and 1970s,” Hispanic American Historical Review 92:3 (August 2012): 437–470CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schwall, Elizabeth, “Coordinating Movements: The Politics of Cuban-Mexican Dance Exchanges, 1959–1983,” Hispanic American Historical Review 97:4 (November 2017): 681–716CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vaughan, Portrait of a Young Painter.

26. On the “psychological investment” in Communism, see Furet, François, The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)Google Scholar, ix. On the development of “Communist subjectivity studies,” see Barrett, James, “Revolution and Personal Crisis: William Z. Foster, Personal Narrative, and the Subjective in the History of American Communism,” Labor History 43:4 (November 2002): 465–482CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Halfin, Igal, Terror in My Soul: Communist Autobiographies on Trial (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Hellbeck, Jochen, Revolution on My Mind: Writing a Diary under Stalin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Herrmann, Gina, Written in Red: The Communist Memoir in Spain (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2010)Google Scholar; Lazar, Marc, ”Le Parti et le don de soi,” Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'Histoire 60 (1998): 35–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Pennetier, Claude and Pudal, Bernard, “Écrire son autobiographie (les autobiographies d'institution, 1931–1939),” Genèses 23 (1996), 53–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Studer, Brigitte, The Transnational World of the Cominternians (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

27. Cvetkovich, Ann, Archive of Feelings: Trauma, Sexuality, and Lesbian Public Cultures (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003), 190CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

28. On the growing importance of psychology and ideas about self-discipline and personality development in Chile's public school system, see Toro, Pablo, “De fortificar la voluntad a desarrollar la personalidad. Cuerpo y emociones en la educación chilena (c.1900–c.1950),” Cad. Cedes, 38:104 (January-April 2018): 49–62Google Scholar.

29. Interview with Crifé Cid by Carolina Fernández-Niño, January 15, 2009. I am very grateful to Carolina Fernández-Niño for allowing me to listen to interviews she conducted for “La muchacha se incorpora a la lucha popular. La militancia femenina. Una aproximación a la cultura política del Partido Comunista de Chile, 1965–1973” (BA thesis: Universidad Santiago de Chile, 2009).

30. Interview with Marta Friz by Carolina Fernández-Niño, Santiago, January 30, 2009.

31. This paragraph is mostly based on Corvalán, Luis, De lo vivido y lo peleado. Memorias (Santiago: Lom Ediciones, 2007), 333–334Google Scholar; Toro, Carlos, La guardia muere pero no se rinde … mierda. Memorias de Carlos Toro (Santiago: Partido Comunista de Chile, 2007)Google Scholar, 153, 173.

32. Marín, Gladys, Gladys Marín. Conversaciones con Claudia Korol (Buenos Aires: Ediciones América Libre, 2004), 38Google Scholar. This paragraph is mostly based on Labarca, Eduardo, Vida y lucha de Luis Corvalán (Mexico City: Ediciones de Cultura Popular, 1976), 31–32Google Scholar; Aceitón, Iris, Y todavía no olvido. Crónicas de la U.T.E., Alimentando la memoria (Santiago: Ceibo Ediciones, 2012), 172Google Scholar; “Nueva casa inauguran las JJ. CC,” El Siglo, October 5, 1960, 4; “Su nueva sede social inaugurarán los jóvenes comunistas,” El Siglo, October 19, 1961, 5.

33. “Quiere entrar a la Jota y no sabe cómo,” Ramona 83, May 29, 1973, 34. See also Poblete, Patricio, La roja cadena de nuestros sueños. A la memoria de Patricio Poblete (Arica, Chile: Ediciones Brigadas de la Memoria Popular y Memoria Amaranto, 2007), 88Google Scholar.

34. Interview with Victoria Villagrán, Santiago, September 2011, CAOVG-CPPVG.

35. Guerrero, Manuel, Desde el túnel. Diario de vida de un detenido desaparecido (Santiago: Lom Ediciones, 2008), 119–123Google Scholar. Guerrero's memoirs were published first in Sweden in 1979 and only posthumously in Chile.

36. Interview with Boris by Alfonso Salgado, Santiago, January 13, 2014.

37. Interview with Jaime by Alfonso Salgado, Santiago, December 17, 2013. This building would later be seized and used by one of the Pinochet dictatorship's intelligence agencies.

38. Testimony of Miguel Estay Reyno, November 14, 2001, consulted in Fundación de Documentación y Archivo de la Vicaría de la Solidaridad [hereafter cited as FUNVISOL], Sub Fondo Jurídico.

39. Guerrero, Desde el túnel, 119–123.

40. Testimony of Miguel Estay Reyno, November 14, 2001, consulted in FUNVISOL, Sub Fondo Jurídico.

41. Martínez, Sergio, Entre Lenin y Lennon. La militancia juvenil en los años ‘60 (Santiago: Mosquito Comunicaciones, 1996), 26–27Google Scholar, 86–87.

42. Interview with Eugenio by Alfonso Salgado, Talca, August 19, 2012. Eugenio and this former comrade are still friends, and they both laugh when remembering this anecdote.

43. Marín, La vida es hoy, 126.

44. Guerrero, Desde el túnel, 150–152.

45. “No quería ir a reuniones, prefería bailar twist,” El Siglo, January 23, 1972.

46. I am using a term coined by Ann Cvetkovich, by which she means approaching “texts as repositories of feelings and emotions, which are enclosed not only in the content of the texts themselves but in the practices that surround their product and reception.” Cvetkovich, Archive of Feelings, 7.

47. Visual artist and former philosophy student Juan Guillermo Tejeda was in charge of answering the readers’ letters. Tejeda was a JJCC sympathizer, not a card-carrying member. In an interview conducted in the mid 1990s, he described himself as being in-between the hippies and the Communists. Urzúa, Claudia, “Guillermo Tejeda, artista: ‘Fue una cacería humana y se estimulaba la delación,’” in Así lo viví yo … Chile 1973, Verdugo, Patricia, ed. (Santiago: Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello, 1994), 127–132Google Scholar. See also Tejeda, Guillermo, Allende, la señora Lucía y yo (Santiago: Ediciones B, 2002), 109–134Google Scholar; and Ottone, Ernesto, El viaje rojo. Un ejercicio de memoria (Santiago: Debate, 2014), 56Google Scholar.

48. “Lola indiferente pero no tanto,” Ramona 70, February 27, 1973, 35.

49. “Moreno, virgen, autocrítico y suicida,” Ramona 79, May 1, 1973, 62–63.

50. “Moreno, virgen, autocrítico y suicida,” Ramona 79, May 1, 1973, 62–63.

51. “Si te he visto, no me acuerdo,” Ramona 82, May 22, 1973, 35.

52. Interview with Jaime by Alfonso Salgado, Santiago, December 17, 2013. See also Iván Ljubetic, Sola Sierra. Una imprescindible, Santiago: El Pan Nuestro, 2000, 38.

53. Interview with Marta Inés Maldonado by Walter Roblero, Santiago, September 22, 2011, Maestranza Ferroviaria de San Bernardo, CEDOCMMDH.

54. González, Yanko, “Primeras culturas juveniles en Chile: pánico, malones, pololeo y matiné,” Atenea 503, I semestre 2011: 28–32Google Scholar; Serra, Daniela, “Vírgenes a medias. Historia de la sexualidad y el amor en Chile, 1952–1964,” in Seminario Simon Collier 2009, Silva, Elisa et al. , eds. (Santiago: Instituto de Historia de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 2010), 209–215Google Scholar.

55. This paragraph is based on González, “Primeras culturas juveniles en Chile,” 31–32; Barr-Melej, Psychedelic Chile, 45–68; and Mattelart and Mattelart, La juventud chilena, 322–326.

56. “Polémico y abierto congreso tendrá la Juventud Comunista,” Gente Joven, February 18, 1960, 6–7.

57. “La herencia de los combatientes desaparecidos,” El Siglo, January 23, 1972. Zamorano's piece was awarded first prize in the short autobiography contest organized for the PCCH's 50th anniversary.

58. Martínez, Entre Lenin y Lennon, 100. For other recollections about the importance of these films in Chile, see Coloma, Jorge, Peces en la arena: Crónica de guerra, UTE 1973 (Santiago: Editorial Universidad de Santiago, 2005), 189–191Google Scholar.

59. “La juventud, nervio y motor de la Revolución Cubana,” Gente Joven (Santiago), August 14, 1959, 8–9.

60. “Guerrilleras cubanas amaron y pelearon,” Mirada (Santiago), September 2, 1959, 12–13. On the gendered representations of the Cuban Revolution elsewhere, see Anne E. Gorsuch, “‘Cuba, My Love’: The Romance of Revolutionary Cuba in the Soviet Sixties,” American Historical Review 93:4 (April 2015): 497–526.

61. “El adolescente chileno 1972 se desnuda ante el amor,” Ramona 31, May 30, 1972, 14–17.

62. “Dos pololos que no son lolos y una lola que está muy sola,” Ramona 86, June 19, 1973, 34–35.

63. Jorge Muñoz to Gladys Marín, Santiago, November 7, 1973, consulted in Fundación Gladys Marín, Instituto de Ciencias Alejandro Lipschutz, Santiago [hereafter ICAL]. Excerpts from this letter and others can also be found in Marín, La vida es hoy, 131–139.

64. Carlos Berger to Dora Guralnik, Moscow, November 3, 1970, in Berger, Eduardo, Desde Rusia con amor. Cartas de Carlos Berger a su familia (Santiago: Pehuén Editores, 2007), 24–27Google Scholar. The original letters can be found in Fondo Carmen Hertz, CEDOC-MMDH.

65. Carlos Berger to Ricardo Berger, Moscow, March 1, 1971, in Berger, Desde Rusia con amor, 54.

66. Eduardo Berger, Mis 59 años (Ottawa: n.p, 2007), 11.

67. Hertz, Carmen, La historia fue otra. Memorias (Santiago: Debate, 2017), 73Google Scholar.

68. Carlos Berger to Ricardo and Eduardo Berger, Moscow, November 15, 1970, in Berger, Desde Rusia con amor, 33.

69. Jorge Muñoz to Gladys Marín, Santiago, April 8, 1975, consulted in Fundación Gladys Marín, ICAL.

70. “Ahhh! El amor,” Ramona 6, December 3, 1971, 51. See also “El adolescente chileno 1972 se desnuda ante el amor,” Ramona 31, May 30, 1972, 14–17.

71. Interview with Rosa by Alfonso Salgado, Santiago, August 1, 2012.

72. See for example Toro, La guardia muere pero no se rinde, 141.

73. I discuss these two issues at greater length in Salgado, “‘A Small Revolution,’” 66–76.

74. “¿Cómo es el universitario comunista?,” Ramona 32, June 6, 1972, 25–29.

75. “Muchas ganas; pero mucho miedo,” Ramona 66, January 30, 1973, 14–19. See also “Jóvenes Europa 1971. ¿Se muere el amor?,” Ramona 3, November 12, 1971, 14–18; “El atraque no tiene nada de malo,” Ramona 4, November 19, 1971, 19–22; “La primera vez,” Ramona 12, January 18, 1972, 26–27; “El adolescente chileno 1972 se desnuda ante el amor,” Ramona 31, May 30, 1972, 14–17; “El ángulo de los padres: ¿Qué hacer ante la libertad sexual de nuestros hijos?,” Ramona 36, July 4, 1972, 16–19; “¿Sirve para algo la virginidad?,” Ramona 56, November 21, 1972, 14–17; “El sexo a tres velocidades,” Ramona 69, February 20, 1973, 14–19; and “Sexo es estar nervioso,” Ramona 70, February 27, 1973, 14–18.

76. See for example “Un caso de confianza,” Ramona 27, May 2, 1972, 38–39; “La familia y los hippies,” Ramona 41, August 8, 1972, 38–39; “Abortos, ‘períodos de seguridad’ y otras yerbas,” Ramona 62, January 2, 1973, 39; “Insatisfecho,” Ramona 71, March 6, 1973, 35; “Moreno, virgen, autocrítico y suicida,” Ramona 79, May 1, 1973, 62–63.

77. “Manifiesto: Patricia Politzer, periodista,” La Tercera (Santiago), January 31, 2016, 20–21.

78. Mattelart and Mattelart, Juventud chilena, 108–111.

79. “El adolescente chileno 1972 se desnuda ante el amor,” Ramona 31 (Santiago), May 30, 1972, 14–17.

80. On love as the main reason to get married, see Mattelart and Mattelart, La juventud chilena, 330–334. On sexual patterns and the sexual revolution in Chile, see Luis Felipe Caneo, “Rescate de las memorias colectivas de las beneficiarias en torno a las políticas de planificación familiar en Chile” (BA thesis, Universidad Alberto Hurtado, 2013); Mooney, Jadwiga Pieper, The Politics of Motherhood: Maternity and Women's Rights in Twentieth-Century Chile (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Serra, “Vírgenes a media.” Great research on these topics has been carried out on neighboring Argentina. See for example Cosse, Isabella, Pareja, sexualidad y familia en los años sesenta. Una revolución discreta en Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 2010)Google Scholar; Felitti, Karina, La revolución de la píldora. Sexualidad y política en los sesenta (Buenos Aires: Edhasa, 2012)Google Scholar.

81. “Abortos, ‘períodos de seguridad’ y otras yerbas,” Ramona 62, January 2, 1973, 39.

82. “Hoy día le toca a la píldora,” Ramona 75, April 3, 1973, 14–17; “Hoy día le toca a los DIU,” Ramona 76, April 10, 1973, 14–17; “Hoy día le toca a los métodos tradicionales,” Ramona 77, April 17, 1973, 14–17; “Hoy les toca a los métodos para hombres,” Ramona 78, April 24, 1973, 14–17; “Hoy día le toca a: lo bueno y lo malo de los diferentes métodos anticonceptivos,” Ramona 79, May 1, 1973, 11–13.

83. “Las confianzas de J,” Ramona 32, June 27, 1972, 39. See also “Un caso de confianza,” Ramona 27, May 2, 1972, 38–39; “El caso de ‘J’ y Patty: tercer round,” Ramona 71, March 6, 1973, 34.

84. “¿Casarme yo? … ¡Nunca!,” Ramona 86, June 19, 1973, 22–25.

85. “¿Vale la pena casarse?,” Ramona 64, January 16, 1973, 14–19.

86. “La política y el amor,” Ramona 81, May 15, 1973, 35.

87. “Indiferencia con matrimonio, guagua y política,” Ramona 87, June 26, 1973, 34–35.

88. Arcos, Humberto, Autobiografía de un viejo comunista chileno. (Una historia ‘no oficial’ pero verdadera) (Santiago: Lom Ediciones, 2013), 44Google Scholar.