¹ For a history of early photography, see Taft, Robert Photography and the American Scene; A Social History, 1839–1889 (New York: Macmillan Co., 1938;Google Scholar rpt, New York: Dover Publications, 1964).

² Szarkowski, John “Early Photography and Modernism,” presentation to the Museum, J. Paul Getty conference Photography: Discovery and Invention, 1839–1989, (Malibu, CA., January 30, 1989).Google Scholar

³ See, for example, Glenn, Sigrid S. and Ellis, Janet “Do the Kallikaks Look ‘Menacing’ or ‘Retarded’”? American Psychologist, 43 (September 1988), 742–743;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Fancher, Raymond E. “Henry Goddard and the Kallikak Family Photographs: ‘Conscious Skullduggery or ‘Whig History’?” American Psychologist, 4 (June 1987), 585–590;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Zenderland, Lelia “On Interpreting Photographs, Faces, and the Past,” American Psychologist, 43 (September 1988), 743–744.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

⁴ See, for example, Trachtenberg, Alan, Reading American Photographs (New York: Hill & Wang, 1989).Google Scholar

⁵ One exception is John Collier, Jr., an anthropologist who advocates using photographs to measure material culture, but he deals with contemporary records, not historical photographs, and assumes a degree of control over the photographed environment which historians rarely have. See Collier, John Jr. and Collier, Malcolm Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method (Revised and expanded edition. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986).Google Scholar

⁶ The most controversial (and flawed) effort to use photographs to “tell” history is Lesy’s, Michael Wisconsin Death Trip (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973).Google Scholar

⁷ See de Azevedo, Paulo César e Lissovsky, Maurício eds., “O fotógrafo Christiano Jr.,” Escravos brasileiros do século xix na fotografia de Christiano Jr. (São Paulo: Ed. Ex Libris, 1987).Google Scholar Photograph No. 69, for example, of two armed soldiers in Moorish-looking garb, may well have been taken in Africa.

⁸ See Debret’s, Voyage Pittoresque et Historique au Brésil: Séjour d’un Artiste Français au Brésil (3 vols. 1834, reprint Rio de Janeiro 1965,Google Scholar and other editions).

⁹ Almanak Administrativo, Mercantil e Industrial da Corte e da Provincia do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Laemmert, 1863).

¹⁰ At one point, for example, his cards were signed “Christiano Jr. “Miranda.” One of these cards has the Christiano Júnior name crossed out neatly in pen, indicating that the partnership dissolved. See Escravos brasileiros, figure 47.

¹¹ Azevedo, e Lissovsky, “O fotógrafo Christiano Jr.,” in Escravos brasileiros, pp. ix-xi.Google Scholar

¹² Azevedo e Lissovsky, “O fotógrafo Christiano Jr.,” p. xii. Each set contained one hundred pocket-sized cards, roughly 6.5 by 10.5 centimeters.

¹³ Azevedo e Lissovsky, “O fotografo Christiano Jr.,” pp. xi-xiv.

¹⁴ Naef, Weston “Experimental Photography: Discovery and Invention,” printed essay, Getty, J. Paul Museum, Malibu, CA., 1989, p. 2.Google Scholar

¹⁵ See Karasch, Mary Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808–1850 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p, 362.Google Scholar Thomas Holloway, who has studied Brazilian mid-nineteenth century legal statutes extensively, finds no evidence of any codified restriction on slaves wearing shoes; the distinction was likely only one of custom, although it was nearly universal.

¹⁶ Northern abolitionists in the United States successfully used photographs of light-skinned southern slaves to shock audiences and to raise funds for anti-slavery activities. See Collins, Kathleen “Portraits of Slave Children,” History of Photography, 9:3 (July-September, 1985), 187–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁷ Karasch, , Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, p. 206.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Gorender, Jacob “A Face Escrava da Corte Imperiai Brasileira,” Escravos brasileiros, p. xxi-xxvi.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Courtesy of Thomas H. Holloway. See the Ludwig and Briggs lithographic collection from the 1840s in the Biblioteca Nacional in Rio de Janeiro, published in fascimilie as Lembrança do Brasil.

²⁰ See Levine, Robert M. ed. Windows on Latin America (Coral Gables, FL: South Eastern Council on Latin American Studies and the University of Miami, 1987);Google Scholar Levine, , Images of History: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Latin American Photographs as Documents (Durham, N.C. & London: Duke University Press, 1989);Google Scholar Zuñige, Solange Guilherme, Luiz & Silva, Eduardo Rio de Janeiro: Condições da Vida na I^a República (Rio de Janeiro: Fundação Casa Rui Barbosa-CNRC, 1986);Google Scholar Levine, Robert M. “Imagens de Reinos,” a videotaped documentary about the ways 19th century Latin American photographers saw their world (Coral Gables: University of Miami, 1986);Google Scholar Burns, E. Bradford Eadweard Muybridge in Guatemala, 1875. The Photographer as Social Recorder (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986);Google Scholar Vanderwood, Paul J. and Samponaro, Frank N. Border Fury: A Picture Postcard Record of Mexico’s Revolution and U.S. War Preparedness Along the Border, 1910–1918 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988);Google Scholar Albers, Patricia C. & James, William R. “Travel Photography: A Methodological Approach,” Annals of Tourism Research, 15 (1988), 134–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²¹ Toplin, Robert Brent The Abolition of Slavery in Brazil (New York: Atheneum, 1975), p. 261;Google Scholar Fernandes, Florestan A integração do negro na sociedade de classes (São Paulo, 1964), 1, 16–18,Google Scholar 32, 49; A Província de São Paulo, May 9, 1888, p. 1; Ianni, Otavio As metamorfoses do escravo: Apogeu e crise da escravatura no Brasil meridional (São Paulo, 1962), pp. 264–65.Google Scholar See also de Azevedo, Célia Maria Marinho “O negro livre no imaginario das elites (racismo, imigrantismo, e abolicionismo em São Paulo),” Master’s thesis, Universidade de São Paulo, 1985;Google Scholar Hahner, June E. Poverty and Politics: The Urban Poor in Brazil, 1870–1920 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1986);Google Scholar Adamo, Sam C. “The Broken Promise,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1983;Google Scholar Burns, E. Bradford “Manuel Querino’s Interpretation of the African Contribution to Brazil,” Journal of Negro History, 54 (January 1974), 78–86;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Conniff, Michael L. “Voluntary Associations in Rio, 1870–1945,” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 1 (February 1975), 64–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²² For example, Lady Eastlake in England and the poet Baudelaire in France. See John Szarkowski, idem.

²³ See, for example, Rugendas, ’ Voyage Pittoresque dans le Brésil, por Maurice Rugendas. Tr.de Golbéry, M. (Paris, 1835);Google Scholar Debret, Jean Baptiste Voyage Pittoresque et Historique au Brésil, depuis 1816 jusqu’en 1831. 3 vols. (Paris, 1834);Google Scholar Ferrez, Gilberto O Brasil de Eduard Hildebrandt (Rio de Janeiro; Record, 1988).Google Scholar

²⁴ Not pictured. Gilberto Ferrez calls the Rugendas-Debret- Hildebrandt school “realistic tropicalism,” minimizing the romantic thrust of their point of view. See Gilberto Ferrez, p. 41.

²⁵ Cited in Davidson, James West & Lytle, Mark Hamilton After the Fact: the Art of Historical Detection (2nd ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986), p. 237.Google Scholar

²⁶ Levine, images of History…; Ferrez, Hilberto and Naef, Weston J. Pioneer Photographers of Brazil, 1840–1920 (New York: Center for Inter-American Relations, 1976).Google Scholar

²⁷ See Gold, Steve “Conference Report,” Visual Sociology Review, 111:2 (Fall 1988), 7.Google Scholar

²⁸ Tagg, John citing Foucault, in The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photography and Histories (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988), p. 189.CrossRefGoogle Scholar