¹ Comprehensive general works on Spain during the eighteenth century are Bleye, Pedro Aguado and Molina, Cayetano Alcázar, Manual de Historia de España, Vol. 3 (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1964)Google Scholar; Herr, Richard, The Eighteenth Century Revolution in Spain (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1958)Google Scholar; Hargreaves-Mawdsley, W.N., Eighteenth-Century Spain 1700–1788: A Political, Diplomatic and Institutional History (London: The Macmillan Press, 1979)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and del Río, Antonio Ferrer, Historia del reinado de Carlos III en España (4 vols.; Madrid, 1856).Google Scholar Translated from the French is Sarrailh, Jean, La España Ilustrada de la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII (Mexico and Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1957).Google Scholar Those which cover specific aspects of the Spanish Enlightenment include Shafer, Robert J., The Economic Societies in the Spanish World (1763–1821) (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1958)Google Scholar; Polt, John H. R., Jovellanos and his English Sources: Economic, Philosophical, and Political Writings (Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1964)Google Scholar; Stein, Stanley J., “Bureaucracy and Business in the Spanish Empire, 1759–1804: Failure of a Bourbon Reform in Mexico and Peru,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 61 (February 1981), 2–28 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bauer, Arnold J., “The Church in the Economy of Spanish America: ‘Censos’ and ‘Depósitos’ in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 63 (November 1983), 707–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Hauben, Paul J., “The Enlightenment and Minorities: Two Spanish Discussions,” Catholic Historical Review, 65 (January 1979), 1–19.Google Scholar

² Whitaker, Arthur R., ed., Latin America and the Enlightenment (New York: Cornell University Press, 1961), p. 6 Google Scholar; Herr, , The Eighteenth Century Revolution, pp. 201–235.Google Scholar

³ See Engstrand, Iris H.W., Spanish Scientists in tke New World: The Eighteenth Century Expeditions (Seattle: Washington University Press, 1981)Google Scholar and Cutter, Donald C., Malaspina in California (San Francisco: John Howell Books, 1960).Google Scholar The first voyage of the Enlightenment era to reach California was that of the French Count of La Perouse in 1786.

⁴ Hargreaves-Mawdsley, , Eighteenth Century Spain, pp. 3–4.Google Scholar

⁵ The nine councils were as follows: Council of State, Royal Council, Council of Castile, Council of the Inquisition, Council of the Indies, Council of the Orders, Council of War, Council of Finance, and Council of Aragon. The last was first to be suppressed in 1707 and the Council of State lost much of its power under Felipe V.

⁶ Navarra was the only Spanish province to have a viceroy and certain other special privileges; the viceregal palace was in Pamplona.

⁷ Hargreaves-Mawdsley, , Eighteenth Century Spain, p. 10–11 Google Scholar; and Stein, , “Bureaucracy and Business,” p. 3.Google Scholar See also Fisher, Lillian Estelle, The Intendant System in Spanish America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1929).Google Scholar

⁸ Bleye, Agudo and Molina, Alcázar, Historia de España, 3, p. 188.Google Scholar

⁹ Herr, , Eighteenth Century Revolution, p. 21.Google Scholar The Marchese di Squillace, an Italian appointed by Carlos III as Secretary of State for War and Finance, and his countryman the Marques de Grimaldi, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, were not popular among Spaniards, especially after the inglorious Seven Years’ War culminating in 1763. The winter of 1765–66 was severe and the shortage of grain was acute among the lower classes. Squillace (called Esquiladle in Spain) was held responsible because of grain policies and other reasons. The final straw, however, was his prohibition of the time honored three-cornered broad brimmed hats and long capes commonly worn by Spaniards. These, he said, made it easier for criminals to conceal their identities and stolen goods. A violent riot broke out on Palm Sunday, March 23, 1766 and mobs of people sacked the houses of Squillace and stoned that of Grimaldi. As a result, Squillace was exiled and rumours were that the riots were secretly planned by the nobles or clergy who wanted to prevent further reforms. See Rodriguez, Laura, “The Spanish Riots of 1766,” Past and Present, 59 (1973), 117–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Mörner, Magnus, “The Expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain and Spanish America in 1767 in Light of Eighteenth Century Regalism,” The Americas, 23 (October 1966), 159;Google Scholar Herr, , Eighteenth Century Revolution, p. 67 Google Scholar; and Hargreaves-Mawdsley, , Eighteenth Century Spain, p. 117.Google Scholar

¹¹ See Mörner, , “The Expulsion of the Jesuits,” pp. 156–164,Google Scholar and Callahan, William J. and Higgs, David, Church and Society in Catholic Europe of the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979).CrossRefGoogle Scholar These views are summarized by Francis F. Guest, O.F.M. in “An Exploration into the Political and Ecclesiastical World of Junípero Serra,” and “Regalism, Ranchos, and the Missions in Alta California,” two unpublished manuscripts graciously lent to the author in preparation of this paper.

¹² Campomanes (1723–1803), was mentor of fellow Asturian Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos (1744–1811) who became well known for his enlightened economic policies of the late eighteenth century. An interesting discussion of the influence of Campomanes in Italy is found in Venturi, Franco, “Church and Reform in Enlightenment Italy: The Sixties of the Eighteenth Century,” Journal of Modern History, 48 (June 1976), 226–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar See also Shafer, Economic Societies, for Campomanes’ role in the Madrid society.

¹³ The letter, allegedly written by the Jesuit General Padre Lorenzo Ricci, stated that Carlos III was the son of Isabel Farnese and Julio (later Cardinal) Alberoni.

¹⁴ Hargreaves-Mawdsley, , Eighteenth-Century Spain, pp. 116–118 Google Scholar; Herr, , Eighteenth Century Revolution, pp. 20–26 Google Scholar; Morner, , “Expulsion of the Jesuits,” pp. 156–164.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Mörner, , “Expulsion of the Jesuits,” p. 162.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Priestley, Herbert I., José de Gálvez: Visitor General of New Spain, 1765–1771 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1916)Google Scholar; Stein, , “Bureaucracy and Business,” pp. 2–4 Google Scholar; and Garcia, Luis Navarro, Don José de Gálvez y la Comandancia General de las Provincias Internas (Sevilla, 1964).Google Scholar

¹⁷ McCarty, Kieran O.F.M., A Spanish Frontier in the Enlightened Age: Franciscan Beginnings in Sonora and Arizona, 1767–1770 (Washington, D.C.: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1981), p. 7.Google Scholar See also Kessell, John, Friars, Soldiers, and Reformers: Hispanic Arizona and the Sonora Mission Frontier, 1767–1856 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1976).Google Scholar

¹⁸ McCarty, , A Spanish Frontier, pp. 8–10.Google Scholar Simultaneously, Gálvez was making plans for the arrival of a French and Spanish group of astronomers who would travel to the southern portion of the peninsula for the observation of the transit of Venus on June 3, 1769. From his detailed preparations it is obvious that Gálvez was deeply interested in this scientific endeavor. See Engstrand, Iris Wilson, Royal Officer in Baja California 1768–1770: Joaquín Velázquez de León (Los Angeles: Dawson’s Books, 1976).Google Scholar

¹⁹ The story of the settlement of California is well chronicled. The role of Father Serra is best told in Geiger, Maynard J., O.F.M., The Life and Times of Fray Junípero Serra, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1959)Google Scholar: Tibesar, Antonine, O.F.M., ed. and trans. Writings of Junípero Serra, 4 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1955–1966)Google Scholar; and Chapman, Charles E., The History of California: The Spanish Period (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1921.Google Scholar

²⁰ Guest, “An Exploration into the World on Junípero Serra.” Most general works on the Spanish period in California indicate the difficult relations between Father Serra and military governors Pedro Fages, Fernando de Rivera y Moneada, and Felipe de Neve.

²¹ Beilharz, Edwin A., Felipe de Neve: First Governor of California (San Francisco: California Historical Society, 1971).Google Scholar

²² Harris, C.R.S., Duns Scotus, 2 vols. (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927), 2, 346 Google Scholar and Sanchis, Antonio Mestre, ed., La Iglesia en La España de los siglos xvii y xviii, 7 vols. (Madrid, 1979), 4, 154–55,Google Scholar quoted in Guest, , “The World of Junípero Serra,” p. 46.Google Scholar

²³ Beijharz, , Felipe de Neve, pp. 9–11.Google Scholar

²⁴ Guest, , “The World of Junípero Serra,” pp. 49–50.Google Scholar That the “old ways” so unacceptable to the padres (i.e. abortion, infanticide, adultery, unusual sexual practices) were still being practiced is evident from the first-hand accounts of scientific observer José Longinos Martínez, who visited California in 1792. See Simpson, Lesley Byrd, ed. and trans., Journal of José Longinos Martínez (San Francisco: John Howell, 1961)Google Scholar and also Kelsey, Harry, ed. and trans., The Doctrine and Confesionario of Juan Cortés (Altadena, CA: Howling Coyote Press, 1979).Google Scholar

²⁵ See Tiryakian, Josefina Cintron, “Campillo’s pragmatic New System: a mercantile and utilitarian approach to Indian reform in Spanish colonies of the eighteenth century,” History of Political Economy, 10 (Summer 1978), 252–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁶ Letter from Governor Juan Claudio Pineda of Sonora to five frontier officials upon receipt of the order for the expulsion of the Jesuits. He was attempting to comply with the instructions of the Conde de Aranda accompanying the order of 1767; quoted in McCarty, , A Spanish Frontier, pp. 5–6.Google Scholar